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    毕业设计开题报告：“天朝”主题宾馆空间设计


    


    毕业设计开题报告
    艺术类







    题 目
    天题宾馆空间设计
    学 院：
    艺术学院
    专业班级：
    环境艺术设计122班
    学生姓名：
    ***
    学 号：
    2012123243
    指导教师：
    ***（讲师）








    年 月 日
    淮海工学院毕业设计开题报告
    1课题研究意义国外研究现状水发展趋势
    1 课题研究意义：
    年国民济持续快速增长市场济日益完善居民支配收入明显提高生活方式消费观念发生深刻变化国国旅游客源体已少数富裕口普通众转变城镇居民农村居民出游数出游率明显提高出现众细分市场驾车背包游等助旅游者变化饭店业带广阔发展空间市场济发展极促进旅游产业发展题饭店满足样化性化需求等方面具重作外国样然资源深厚历史文化底蕴题饭店发展提供必条件题饭店发展必然趋势题酒店围绕某种题进行建设装饰种住宿形式．旨住家庭带乐趣高水准娱乐体验般意义酒店相较特点赋予酒店某种题．围绕种题建设具全方位差异性酒店营体系氛围．营造出独特魅力性格特征．实现提升酒店产品质量品位目顾客获满意服务快乐体验享受酒店营造文化氛围中达精神升华提高意境

    2 国外研究现状水发展趋势：
    题饭店住宿产业中种新兴业态实际便现代饭店发源西方发达国家种业态规模数量占市场份额走遍欧美国见饭店然熟悉标准间唱角美国拉斯维加斯极富性色彩金银岛饭店威尼斯饭店金字塔饭店等题饭店属凤毛麟角题饭店理建设相匾乏应原题饭店半世纪历史发达国家题饭店总体形态组织验少理题饭店研究远整住宿业理样成熟丰厚题酒店推出国外已50年历史1958年美国加利福尼亚MadonnaInn率先推出12间题房间发展109间成美国早具代表性题酒店玛利亚旅馆Madonna夫妇1958年创建109间房套房房间题中著名山顶洞套房间套房完全利天然岩石做成板墙壁天花板房间挂瀑布连浴缸淋浴喷洒岩石制成床单摆设运美洲豹皮图案更彰显原始气息国外题酒店体积庞客房数量巨达千间中米高梅酒店5005客房威尼斯酒店更达6000间客房拉斯维加斯贝拉吉欧酒店梦幻酒店金银岛酒店韦恩拉斯维加斯酒店等韦恩投资外马戏酒店石中剑酒店金字塔酒店曼达利海湾酒店等马戏集团投资建造国外题酒店酒店周边环境加建设改造酒店题相呼应样顾客创造良题体验环境顾客中情感受题文化独特魅力塑造体验环境程中酒店水元素情独钟者酒店周边设置水面者酒店部突出水存方面拉斯维加斯沙漠绿洲形相致方面中国遇水止风水理念相契合

    3 国研究现状水发展趋势
    题酒店国刚刚起步相应理研究必较少尚未形成完整理体系国题饭店方面缺乏理指导建设运营领域处探索阶段存许问题方面题饭店实践中展示蓬勃生命力需加纳总结需学科层次角度概括总结提炼等方法种新兴业态进行全方位研究然题型酒店国起步较晚作未酒店业发展新趋势国酒店应国际酒店集团抢滩国市场种新思路应该积极探索题酒店发展历史长远发展坚实基础着国市场济日益完善体验济世界文化济浪潮风起云涌题酒店必成国际酒店业发展趋势题酒店国出现新生事物题酒店作种正兴起酒店发展新形态国发展历史长发展迅速然题型酒店国发展迅速中国酒店业面竞争形势越越严峻题酒店暴露出越越问题需国题酒店未发展作出效规划国题酒店持续发展奠定良基础健康序发展着国济快速发展生活水日益提高消费力消费水极提升商务度假旅游等活动国城市酒店业快速发展题酒店作城市名片外窗口酒店形象服务水侧面反映出城市整体形象文化特质着济发展国酒店业竞争愈愈激烈题酒店作 种酒店行业全新发展状态带独特体验感受题酒店发展中强化题定位准确性营造谐题环境氛围始终坚持题酒店 产品题化重视文化理题文化提升酒店竞争力体现文化深度开发强调室环境整体特色化鲜明化
    淮海工学院毕业设计开题报告
    2课题基容遇困难提出解决问题方法措施
    1 课题基容：
    确定题酒店题时候．充分考虑酒店济发展水设计题应济发展水相适应着城市建设速度加快现阶段度奢华题酒店面着客源越越少困境贴然贴原生态题酒店成市场热点题独特性众题宾馆战略出发点终成宾馆核心竞争力文化性体现宾馆涵追求文化题宾馆执行具体战术手段宾馆通文化获竞争优势体验性宾馆追求质宾馆实现顾客独特体验获高回报利润宾馆终目标通房间充满特色设计入住者拥视觉享受房间风格拥种入住者达出国门体验风情房间

    2遇问题：
    (1)投资没认真做总体设计前期工作直接开始酒店设计工作投资仅参观家酒店感性认识拍板投资建新酒店设计单位没介入酒店筹建初期阶段
    (2)题酒店设计中通道布局服务通道客通道分开十分重特包间区域交叉仅会降低服务品质会清洁卫生带便利毯等硬件设施保养高水设计会两通道明显分开
    (3)空外表酒店外观漂亮部功规划装修装饰设计等塌糊涂设计专业实性差更缺少艺术性酒店开始运转开始敲敲断形成该花费改造成二次投入酒店甚连弥补原设计缺陷（配失调）机会没终身遗憾
    3提出解决问题方法措施
    (1) 酒店设计前必须先完成市场调研酒店选址酒店定位酒店规模档次确定项目行性分析等工作
    (2) 通道设计应满足畅安全便利需应分追求餐座数量化具体说考虑员工操作便利性安全性客活动空间舒适性伸展性
    (3) 题酒店装修设计餐厅装修应围绕营进行顾客中心需首先目标市场容量餐饮需求趋势进行分析时需考虑酒店整体风格餐饮整体规划星评标准求装修投入产出等相关问题
    淮海工学院毕业设计开题报告
    3课题拟采研究手段（途径）行性分析
    1 课题研究手段：
    （1）文献调查：通网网站查找相关资料学校图书馆查找关题宾馆图书进行解参考
    （2）实考察：选址周边进行实考察收集周边情况：交通理位置商业中心
    （3）参考前辈作品：分析知名设计师案例感身受体验设计者思路
    （4）案例分析：南粤设计期设计案例呼伦贝尔东方国际酒店正运草原文化作整体设计元素提出草原酒店设计设计理念探讨草原文化酒店设计容程序包括草原文化题筛选草原文化酒店设计具体事项草原文化题酒店设计求设计者草原文化酒店设计灵魂核心通形形方式草原文化渗透酒店关联方面方面进行设计：
    A酒店整体风格氛围体现草原文化题酒店整体风格氛围顾客酒店总体印象评价顾客入住酒店第感受第印象非常重酒店整体风格氛围定体现草原文化题顾客入住酒店强烈感受草原文化击
    B独特建筑外观体现草原文化题 建筑师表现域文化载体般域会体现域文化独特建筑形式草原文化题酒店方面着天独厚条件素蒙古包具草原民族特色建筑形式突出草原文化题恰
    C非物质文化强化草原文化题非物质文化酒店背景音乐采蒙古民族歌曲蒙古民歌宛转悠扬浑厚气做酒店背景音乐仅十分合适通听觉刺激方式顾客更深刻体验酒店裁员文化题
    D酒店装饰物景观效展示草原文化题
    （5）请教指导老师：遇懂没什想法时候请教指导老师通老师指导拓展思维见解着正确方研究设计
    2课题行性分析：
    酒店题文化表现艺术营造表面画文整体营造机构成题酒店题凸显题价值实现通酒店全部服务展示非建筑设计装饰设计外表面观感毕竟酒店质服务特定题通酒店项服务展示广消费者顾客体验种特殊题美享受

    淮海工学院毕业设计开题报告
    指导教师意见（课题深度广度工作量意见设计结果预测）

















    指导教师（签名）
    年 月 日
    系审查意见：








    系(签名)：
    年 月 日
    毕业设计外文资料翻译

    学 院：
    艺术学院
    专业班级：
    环境艺术设计122班
    学生姓名：
    **
    学 号：
    2012123290
    指导教师：
    **(讲师)
    外文出处：
    Educational Adaptation of Cargo Container Design Features
    附 件：
    1外文资料翻译译文 2外文原文

    指导教师评语：







    签名：
    年 月 日


    货物集装箱设计特点教育适应
    摘
    30年里货物集装箱房子变越越流行货物集装箱模块化设计创建出高效价低家利货物集装箱做家庭住房持续建设实践绝数结构材料回收材料许货物设计参数集装箱房屋标准房屋建设方法（冷成型钢框架轻型木结构）结构角度货物集装箱种效建筑材料文旨探讨货物集装箱设计参数概念建构教育应基问题学（PBL）方法应创建讨组建筑类型分发根定义设计例模型海报演示文稿参数教育活动进行评估调查关键点提高明确性
    关键词
    货物集装箱问题基础学建筑工程重结构材料
    简介：
    集装箱化概念发展300年前现代货物集装箱发展货物集装箱名麦克林美国发明专利拥第五成功项目美国汽车运输公司（麦克莱恩运输公司）分出海运输1955采购泛西洋轮船公司开始运装运方式进行试验作公司者时候想法现代货物集装箱存奠定基础然定新理念集装箱式联运加载卸载概念着轻松变非常吸引力美国军队影响帮助货物集装箱公认世界航运标准货物集装箱1958项专利中运费设备货物集装箱许名字闻名装运时指作集装箱称ISO集装箱Conex盒货物容器作种建筑材料然称联运钢结构单元（该）货物集装箱耐候钢构造风化钢包括影响材料腐蚀程合金元素耐候钢
    形成种非晶态层保护钢完整性
    外耐候钢种理想材料暴露货物集装箱然元素货物集装箱户外部分货物货物运输火车卡车保护水分货物集装箱吸引力建筑材料种原首先强度耐久性提供结构支持寿命长耐候钢结构仅提供腐蚀保护实力外持续建设实践运动建筑材料未货物集装箱回收利外货物集装箱模块化结构简化设计程砖头CMU集装箱设计具体标准
    货物集装箱高利率建筑高性航运成空货物集装箱回起始位置高购买新成货物集装箱许集装箱空世界港口2012德鲁里海事研究中心全球集装箱船队3290万TEU（二十英尺量单位）4数字估计3290万标准20英尺集装箱意味着市场没短缺货物集装箱天总体言货物集装箱应视价值建筑材料
    1设计准
    货物集装箱房子需基础系统正住宅然航运集装箱住宅设计参数断发展相年轻技术似2方法问候基系统数货物集装箱房屋板级基础混凝土桩基础室2种类型基货物集装箱式联运集装箱（轻松移动）室实移动容器留巨空白浪费然室文范围覆盖基础系统没室货物集装箱适货物集装箱建设家庭利板级基础系统基础货物集装箱放基础基系统种非常简单方法货物集装箱家庭模块单元放置楼板螺栓固定装置固定混凝土板身级板基系统提供坚实台容易支持货物集装箱回家板级基础选择深基础系统常见类型深基础桩系统钻孔墩系统两者区系统建设中显易见般典型预制混凝土缸码头扔钻孔井里更少死负载商业厦相低层住宅单元例购物中心中高酒店办公楼等预制桩更解决方案钻码头货物集装箱考虑基础系统称种提高
    货物集装箱钢结构提供堆栈力量7高种力量然赖整钢框架支撑墙完整许货物集装箱家居设计求容器整侧壁集装箱强度安全性明显影响giriunasSezendupaix进行容器模型分析SolidWorksHyperMeshABAQUS CAE收集资料货物集装箱中取出钢型材影响计算机分析较5种负载情况变改变容器研究结果证实求容器墙壁拆国际标准中规定规定力外决定屋顶结构意义端壁强负载电阻元件时承受竖荷载研究希导致标准规格集装箱货物非标准应程序
    然目前少文献讨统计数住宅途货物集装箱求许方法加固安全货物集装箱安全效方式关加强问题拆墙壁会导致凹陷图4示两潜变形涉墙问题潜解决方案钢护栏焊接结构部容器提供额外支持稳定性需加固量取决已删材料数量先前述目前没设置关问题指南建筑规范着结构加固模块化单元连接值关注问题垂直连接相简单容器性质容器设计角落原算装运期组织货物中容器固定起相角落连接证明必少层货物集装箱家保护模块单元起种方法适容器面类似方图5货物集装箱钢结构建造焊接固定容器中永久方式保护容器基础成功通焊接容器钢支架基投坚实基础
    集装箱家加密系统实美观建筑系统加密系统MEP系统（机械电气道）美学成分家中绝缘包括填充系统许方面集装箱货物回家加密系统类似家庭建立传统钢木结构体系然货物集装箱家园许更空间限制相正常家庭建筑设计挑战部分设计程中常见家庭组件必货物集装箱家里空间放置已成非常普遍做法先构造非承重框架围绕货物集装箱冷弯薄壁型钢木材框架系统相似处标准家部框架提供手段挂墙板石膏板腔定位绝缘部件MEP系统图6a描绘部钢框架体系构建分离货物集装箱房间外空隙切割成容器框架中允许标准窗户门框架完成电气安装道系统次道布线布线非常相似标准家庭空间求例外通风集中供热冷重挑战高度限制容器标准然通风系统浅层道隐藏稍微吊顶外辐射加热冷系统需更少空间软代金属通风绝缘方法次类似标准方法构建家绝缘泡沫吹绝缘绝缘方法部框架空间作方法许货物集装箱家庭已成非常成功创造现代吸引力室设计图6b特征货物集装箱家石膏板实木板应标准电器家具明创造非常相似家庭标准现代家庭方法（货物集装箱）
    2教育适应
    材料方法建设建筑工程项目涵盖种教育方法传统讲座分配补充阅读纪录片示范（材料试验现场参观砖砌体墙模拟装配）讨组动手学验方法中讨工作组三四学生起工作完成务讨实验部分分四模块模块重点放作办公空间设计结构单元货物容器实施项研究持续时间三星期十队货物集装箱特感兴趣设计台出现风行全球耐久性相低廉成非常灵活趣题展示模块化设计性基问题学（PBL）方法应部分货物集装箱实施模块重点住宅建筑利具变底板布局常规结构系统引入PBL前块系列预备学块学生变更加熟悉题筹备区块应学生提供知识应PBL块块PBL教学法激发学生探索进步深入study11讨组研究分二模块课程分预科学块介绍题学生简短介绍出设计概念概述详细说明货物集装箱设计规范点特简短介绍包括关建筑材料信息标准尺寸承载力局限性建筑行业原组合样品问题引入课堂制定解决建筑工程实践中实际问题中挑战赋值确定工作边界范围项研究相开放结束学生够更进步研究想象进步探索想法
    三周时间限制典型建筑布局学生发放开始设计工作室活动活动组讨题专栏提需求评估活动结果提交作业模型构建中组学设计货物集装箱特点点施工方法建筑围护结构
    组提交讨结果20×30泡沫板海报演示文稿（70分级）例模型纸板（1 50规模）（30）（分级）讨组期海报介绍容提量规未集团工作作权威题货物容器设计助鼓励组合作进步讨缩放模型进行评估足够足成功低求完成货物集装箱设计完整考虑设计海报提出挑战海报评量规解决项目该组实施特定解决方案解决问题完成危旧房市场办公室挑战空间
    该组成绩2务海报成功完成反映中详细解决方案成功设计完成规模化模型规定材料种情况建筑网站泡沫板波纹纸样品海报介绍缩放模型1 50模型进行分级精度工艺设计构想伟解建筑布局三维空间方法
    教育方法结果进行评估通调查学期项调查学生完成2倍作前期限项目两者货物集装箱设计活动均两调查正调查中反映36名参加调查第名参者25名参者第二次调查73参者学术位二54参者百分没建设验率意义讨组作货物集装箱设计活动61210速度类似活动低利率活动较找出关键点提高货物集装箱设计活动教育价值部分砌体二周研究中团队聚集墙模拟模型演示图墙装配指令分发学生前活动务初步骤清晰定义学生反馈相积极827出10类似规模模型组件作长期项目务项目清楚定义手奏（设计指南）前活动然学生必须外面思考集装箱设计活动箱表1中23活动命名务项目数量2 货物集装箱设计活动学科项目成教育意义低原类推方法足球赛意味着赛场指定重指导方针游戏球没踢该组必须进入该领域设置玩游戏增加设计研究体限制PBL减少纪律项目务项目12
    提高教育活动意义关键点确定提出改进建议海报介绍缩放模型间联系分离研究运行双方务两组进行更强连接必须保持两者间关系作业建筑类型设计灵活性设计灵活性导致更处理学生责感属感预先定义建筑类型活动持续时间活动持续3周作实验室部分
    长期项目建议较长时间作长期项目中进行项活动
    3结
    货物集装箱设计价值模块化建筑材料家结构力设计参数产生标准生活家里种样方式货物集装箱住宅持续成效益种容器身容器家设计相似标准家应天市场中量考虑设计标准文应该标准化创建效设计流程生产集装箱房屋规模较提高重模块化施工单位未建筑工程师推广必须胜基设计特点通现设计参数货物容器讨组项目已创建真实生活问题纪律项目问题基础学部分引导学生进行思维教育适应目标学生调查显示正反馈收学生改善必提高效率活动集装箱原简单运输工具发现适合居集装箱房屋种居住方式似时兼具全球性方性时性永久性限限品质废旧二手集装箱循环利原高碳钢板材料充分减少量回炉炼钢发生重复污染降低二氧化碳排放成活动板房相集装箱房屋然优势建筑中百变皇集装箱称货柜伴世界济体化迅速发展作现代化物流载体全球海陆路航空运输中广泛运国际航运业年全球集装箱吞吐总量数字天文TEU国际计量单位常计量单位吨TEU英文 Twentyfoot Equivalent Unit缩写长度20英尺集装箱国际计量单位称国际标准箱单位通常表示船舶装载集装箱力集装箱港口吞吐量重统计换算单位
    集装箱原简单运输工具发现居住集装箱房屋种居住方式似时兼具全球性方性时性永久性限限品质集装箱拥张力成建筑中百变皇第住集装箱里已考提集装箱房屋恐怕会然联想美国世纪60年代嬉皮士嬉皮士运动垮掉代典作品路里始终箱式拖车影子嬉皮士公社式流浪生活方式表达民族义越南战争反提倡非传统宗教文化批评西方中产阶级价值观箱式拖车正种生活方式载体
    集装箱房屋活动拖车屋相似两者作建筑途种种方法较作专门课题研究说活动拖车屋装扮成居模样类缺乏想象力企图外活动拖车屋实没提供少创作空间集装箱完全作建筑途时模块化质提供极充满创意想象余集装箱介产品设计建筑设计艺术创作间意义说标志着领域高成时领域基元素产品设计言货运业切运输技术相关方面发展具关键性影响建筑设计言集装箱神奇魅力体现许方面尤作基组件独立完整特性高度精确复杂协调技术产物彻底灵活想象源泉
    2001年集装箱城开发者 Urban Space Management 公司委正扩建伦敦 Tower Hamlets 学院提供座集装箱附属教字楼
    般讲集装箱建筑会集中出现海岸港口城市集装箱码头城市景观形成种互动关系种情况集装箱集装箱运输业相关配套作业需建筑途更范围集装箱工程建设关种建设途紧急医疗救助站建设中究原集装箱房屋提供解决时建筑问题便捷手段建造简单造价便宜建种条件基外集装箱房屋广泛点途时性居时餐馆街边店铺等等属偶发性建筑行散布城市角落类集装箱建筑缺乏规模气势场功类型变数产生具匠心建筑空间形式质讲时髦环保存定悖难说排着长队购买价格千环保袋环保时候谓绿色设计仅仅意味着新科技金钱
    说集装箱建筑环保时髦结合首先集装箱建筑途性探索令兴奋救灾庇护急救奢侈公寓度假墅路边商店探险宿营集装箱改造成途房屋预制空间根途采取改造办法系列生活设施轻易改造完成种采预制件建筑方法节省施工工期节省力降低生产成获需花少成劳动力更常规材料高效空间活动房屋市场板房相旧二手集装箱改造成集装箱房屋然成优势表面板房300500元／方米装修集装箱房屋卖1000元／方米板房集装箱房屋舒适度巨差板房拆卸两次基没法集装箱房屋次搬迁寿命达10年成分摊810年钢铁废铁形式卖掉次10年集装箱油漆脱落箱体变形等维修成较高逐渐退出物流领域废旧二手集装箱废弃具原生完整形象简单切割组合具生价值集装箱房屋集装箱年限延长10年种废旧二手集装箱循环利原高碳钢板材料充分减少量回炉炼钢发生重复污染降低二氧化碳排放量减缓资源消耗环境利影响循环利废旧二手集装箱节约17吨钢材04立方米木材减少二氧化碳349吨假年利10万废旧二手集装箱减排349万吨二氧化碳节约34亿度电基两点集装箱住宅环保低碳毋庸置疑果说什集装箱住宅显环保疑机动性想换城市居住吊车加卡车房子整体搬迁果飞屋环游记中公样具想象力完全热气球家安空中
    4技术求——节环保
    外墙节技术：墙体复合技术附保温层外附保温层夹心保温层三种采夹心保温作法较欧洲国采外附发泡聚苯板作法德国外保温建筑占建筑总量80中70均采泡沫聚苯板
    门窗节技术：中空玻璃镀膜玻璃(包括反射玻璃吸热玻璃)高强度LOW2E防火玻璃(高强度低辐射镀膜防火玻璃)采磁控真空溅射方法镀制含金属银层玻璃特智玻璃
    屋顶节技术：利智技术生态技术实现建筑节愿太阳集热屋顶控制通风屋顶等采暖制冷明建筑耗部分（水）源热泵系统置换式新风系统面辐射采暖
    隔热节技术：进入夏季集装箱空间封闭金属外壳受阳光直接射产生室高温需集装箱顶层增设空气隔热间层利加建石棉瓦屋顶遮阳布整体覆盖加建屋顶蓄水池（作清洗集装箱）
    新源开发利：太阳热水器光电屋面板光电外墙板光电遮阳板光电窗间墙光电天窗光电玻璃幕墙等
    5建筑外观设计——新颖独特
    外观采鲜艳红色强调保持原材料色整设计带种然美色彩搭配奔放气周围环境相呼应作道亮丽风景具格
    采抬高沉方式增加空间层次变化流线处理活泼变失沉稳材料实木板材结合环保然摒弃传统设计豪华奢靡丰富体现现代简约设计理念
    层柱子提高集装箱离面高度采混凝土筑台提高目远离面潮气提高外景视线
    整建筑处环境四周山环海采连续玻璃门窗增加视觉延伸空间更通透开阔视野扩感知空间范围外浑然体整建筑处然怀抱中
    6建筑环境设计——简约然
    室功布置合理家具简洁实强调然材质肌理应 采天然木质材料塑造整空间植物花卉等然元素进行装饰生活城市中回然情绪补偿营造种朴实华清新然实舒适环境氛围
    室墙采竖木材起隔热保温效果二整空间视觉延伸高度空间显拥堵
    房间三面通透阳光充足采光影变化增强整空间气氛意境情趣满足审美求
    二层阳台采屋顶花园设计手法增加细节整建筑增加气色室外通透体化创造出开敞流动空间暖暖午品着杯浓茶跳远处海诗情画意
    生活现代轻松环保生活空间感悟断滋生着份年轻渴空间舒展天堂定亲然时感受着然脉动窗外定绿水靓丽精彩格调高雅价格定易想住房变成生活负担…… 花样年华拒绝庸高呼享受生活享受精彩
    集装箱质朴建筑体块简洁美犹搭建组合积木般集装箱建筑具种生俱吸引力游戏类生存活动基方式游戏欢乐满足静安宁直世界时尚界 kidult （ kid adult 组合词特指着孩心态心境性趣味特质成年）风起彼伏总会挖空心思设计出充满童趣商品满足点残存然会发光童心仅种表象更种生活方式座集装箱房屋种生活方式致意
    集装箱建筑然采现代工业化产品作基建筑单元产生发展具强民间性发性般眼中集装箱建筑入流建筑物价值谓发性集装箱建筑设计言集装箱建筑建造数时候没建筑师干预集装箱建筑空间形式参建造业承建商建筑工建造程中发产生体现普通老百姓求场环境技术条件等反应集装箱建筑设计者部分者身
    着建筑观念发展年集装箱建筑逐渐进入建筑师视野成正规业务英国市空间规划组织集装箱作房屋组件加灵活应2001年建成座伦敦码头区新 城 集装箱城(Container City)该区环保材料建成房屋需求非常迫切2002年紧邻集装箱城修建座新城建筑师尼古拉斯•雷希没拘泥单集装箱建成单房屋理念事创新集装箱灵活组建成更具实价值生活工作新场荷兰年学生住房紧缺问题直没缓解特专院校汇集城市阿姆斯特丹乌特列支莱顿等问题尤突出年新生入学9月校园里处学生张贴找房广告没住房学生时搭建帐篷里栖身天花数时搭火车父母家赶学政府房产公司年投入量力物力解决问题年前关方达成项2010年前增建15000间学生房间协议崇尚实义荷兰通海运集装箱改装成学生住宅种简便快捷廉价方式短时间非常效增加住房单位述协议提增建计划已基完成仅阿姆斯特丹建三处型集装箱学生住宅区集装箱摞成幢五层住宅幢住宅中间围宽敞天井公空间停放行车住宅区配超市行车修理店餐厅洗衣房篮球场设施集装箱改建成
    住运货集装箱房屋里冬天会会冷舒适？未住集装箱改造集装箱房屋目前见非集装箱房屋仅挡雨黑冷屋日语住里面会感觉流浪汉旦进行改造会发现集装箱房屋变魅力量采光会空间变温暖面墙切开者开屋顶然两三者四集装箱组合成创意居住空间买已做保温层半成品箱子总言废旧集装箱改造作房屋基建设单元通形式结构组合采取相应加固措施配备标准化门窗板厨卫排水电气明消防防雷电等设施设备进行相应装修成安全舒适性化居住办公场前文提荷兰集装箱学生公寓间长122米宽23米集装箱房屋厨房卫生间卧室阳台卫生间隔中间位置长长集装箱分成厨房起居卧室两空间学生日常生活需基设施（包括互联网）应惧全荷兰Keetwonen时住宅机构负责集装箱住宅设计集装箱改装安装卫生间厨房互联网设施工作中国完成改装集装箱海运荷兰摞成五层高楼房前部加装楼梯走廊部安装阳台真谓麻雀五脏惧全着全球出现日益增绿色建筑越越开始注意船运集装箱改造集装箱建筑作绿色代品数未空集装箱港口占着空间中原昂贵空集装箱运回出发费数情况取代亚洲购买新集装箱会更加便宜带严重果剩余空集装箱作集装箱住宅集装箱办公室集装箱公寓集装箱学校集装箱宿舍集装箱工作室集装箱应急避难者等等集装箱建筑许优势中包括：强度耐久性实性低廉价格十年间北美工业产品稀缺亚洲欧洲工业产品运送北美带问题高额集装箱运回花费廉价集装箱剩余然希找新应方式集装箱新完全利
    1987年11月23日Phillip C • Clark 法律提出专利——种钢制船运集装箱改造集装箱建筑方式专利1989年8月8日通（专利号4854094）2006年南加州建筑师 Peter De Maria 设计出美国首两层船运集装箱住宅该集装箱住宅结构通严格国家认证建筑规范更令印象深刻 LotTek Puma City该集装箱建筑运丰富价格低廉材料拥高质量设计样世界许错改装船运集装箱建筑例子
    传记资料
    克里斯托弗·M·穆尔科学生土木建筑建筑建筑密苏里理工学环境工程系电子邮件：cmmnpb@msteduG Yildirim博士（通讯作者）访问学者土木系
    密苏里理工学建筑环境工程电子邮件：yildirims@mstedu斯图尔特•鲍尔博士副教授土木系建筑密苏里理工学环境工程系电子邮件：baur@mstedu







    Educational Adaptation of Cargo Container Design Features
    Abstract：
    Cargo container homes have become increasingly popular around the world in the last 30 years Because cargo containers are modular in design they can be used to create efficient cheap homes Repurposing cargo containers into homes is a sustainable construction practice due to the majority of the structure coming from recycled materials Many design parameters of cargo container homes parallel those of standard home construction methodologies (cold formed steel framinglight wood framing) and from a structural standpoint cargo containers are an effective building material This paper aims to discuss the design parameters of cargo container home construction and an educational application of the concept Problembased learning (PBL) methodology was applied in order to create a discussion group Building types were handedout scaled model and poster presentation were prepared by teams according to defined design parameters Educational activity is evaluated by survey and critical points are determined to improve
    Keywords：
    Cargo container problembased learning architectural engineering reuse of
    structural material
    Introduction
    The concept of containerization has developed at great lengths over the past 300 years leading up to the modern cargo container An American by the name of Malcom McLean is credited with the invention and patenting of the cargo shipping container His success in owning the 5th largest n trucking company in the United Sates (McLean Trucking Co) allowed him to branch out to marine transportation After purchasing the PanAtlantic Steamship Company in 1955 he began experimenting with different shipping methods It was during his time as owner of the company that his idea for the modern cargo container came to existence While it was not necessarily a new idea the concept of an inter modal shipping container that could be loaded and unloaded with ease became very appealing to the US military Their influence helped to have the cargo container accepted as the standard for shipping lines all around the world The cargo container was issued a patent in 1958 for an Apparatus for shipping freight placement of the layer as well as its composition The continuity of the layer also adds to the protection of the steel1
    Figure 1 Schematic illustration of the corrosion product layers identified on steels exposed to rural and marine atmospheres for the periods of up to five years1 Furthermore weathering steel is an ideal material for cargo containers due to their exposure to natural elements Cargo containers spend the majority of their life outdoors on cargo ships trains and trucks with little protection from moisture The cargo container is an appealing construction material for a variety of reasons First their strength and durability provide both structural support and a long life span Their weathering steel construction provides not only corrosion protection but also strength Also with a movement toward sustainable construction practices the recycling of unused cargo containers for construction material puts an unused product to use Also the cargo containers modular construction simplifies the design process Much like bricks or CMU cargo containers are designed to specific standards Table 1 lists the dimensions of the standard sized containers
    Cargo containers also feature corner assemblies that interlock the containers to one another as seen in Figure 2 The locking mechanism provides stability when multiple containers are beingused in the construction of a building Cargo containers are designed to be supported from the four corners they sit on which provides structural foundation advantages
    Cargo containers are a useful construction due to their high availability The cost of shipping empty cargo containers back to their starting location is higher than the cost of buying a new cargo container so many containers are left sitting empty in ports all around the world In 2012 according to Drewry Maritime Research the global container fleet consisted of approximately 329 million TEU (Twentyfoot equivalent unit) 4 That figure would estimate 329 million standard 20 foot containers meaning that there is no shortage of cargo containers in the market today Overall the cargo container should be viewed as a valuable construction material
    1 Design criteria
    Cargo container homes require a foundation system just as any other residential dwelling would While the design parameters for shipping container homes are constantly evolving due to the relatively young age of the technology there seem to be two major methodologies in regards to a foundation system Most cargo container homes utilize either a slabongrade foundation or a concrete pile foundation A basement is possible with either of those two types of foundations but because the cargo containers are intermodal containers (and thus can be moved easily) a basement would not be practical Moving the containers would leave a large void that would be
    wasted While a basement is possible the scope of this paper will cover foundation systems for cargo container homes that do not have a basement
    As applied to cargo container construction a home utilizing a slabongrade foundation system would lay a foundation and set the cargo containers on top of the foundation This foundation system is a very simple methodology for cargo container homes The modular units are placed on the floor slab and secured with bolts or fixtures set in the concrete slab itself The slabongrade foundation system offers a solid platform that will easily support a cargo container home An alternative to the slabongrade foundation is a deep foundation system Two common types of deep foundations are a pile system and drilled pier system The difference between the two
    systems is evident in their construction A pile is typically a precast concrete cylinder that is driven into the ground while a pier is cast on site in a drilled well Due to having less dead load of a lowrise housing unit compared to a commercial building such as shopping mall mid or high rise hoteloffice building etc precast pile have a better solution over drilled piers in consideration of cargo container homes This foundation system is also referred to as a raisedfoundation that is created by using precast piles The home pictured in Figure 3 is clearly supported only by precast piles
    The cargo container’s steel construction provides the strength to stack containers upwards of 7 high That strength however is dependent on the entire steel framesupporting walls intact Many cargo container home designs require the removal of entire sidewalls of the container which has an obvious effect on the strength and safety of the containers Giriunas Sezen and Dupaix performed a container model analysis using SolidWorks Hypermesh and AbaqusCAE to collect information on the effects of removing steel sections from cargo containers Their computer analysis compared 5 different loading scenarios on both unaltered and altered containers Their results validated the claim that containers with walls removed yielded before the required capacity specified in ISO standards Also they determined that the roof had little structural significance and that the end walls were the strongest load resistive components when subjected to vertical loads Their research will hopefully lead to standards and specifications for the use of cargo containers being used in nonstandard applications following full scale testing6
    While there is very little literature currently available that discusses the statistical data and requirements for reinforcing cargo containers for residential use there are many common methods that are used to both reinforce and secure the cargo containers in a safe and effective way In regards to reinforcing one concern is that the removal of major walls will cause sag Figure 4 depicts both the potential deformation involved with the removal of walls and a potential solution to the problem Steel guardrails can be welded to the interior of the structure to provide additional support and stability for the container The amount of reinforcement needed
    depends on the amount of material removed and as previously stated there are currently no set guidelines or building codes in regards to this issue Along with the structural reinforcement the connection of the modular units is a concern Vertical connection is relatively simple due to the nature of the container Every container is designed with a fitting on each corner originally intended to secure the containers in organized stacks during shipment Those same corner connections prove essential in multistory cargo container homes and can be used to secure the modular units together This methodology is applicable when the containers are oriented in similar directions as in Figure 5 Because the cargo containers are constructed from steel welding can also be used to secure containers together in a permanent fashion Securing the containers to the foundation is often successfully done by welding the containers to steel brackets cast in the foundation to provide a solid base for the home
    A cargo container home’s infill system is one of the most functional and aesthetically pleasing aspects of the building The infill system consists of the MEP system (Mechanical Electrical and Plumbing) as well as aesthetical components The home’s insulation is also included in the infill system In many ways a cargo container home’s infill system is similar to that of a home build from a traditional steel or timber framing system Cargo container homes however have many more spatial limitations as compared to a normal home or building The design challenges are most prevalent in this portion of the design process because while the same families of components are necessary in a cargo container home there is much less space to place them
    It has become a very common practice to first construct a nonloadbearing frame around the inside of the cargo containers Both coldformed steel and light timber can be used and the framing system parallels that of a standard home This internal framing offers both a means to hang drywall or gypsum board as well as a cavity to locate insulation and components of the MEP systems Figure 6a depicts the construction of an internal steel framing system to separate rooms of the cargo container home Also voids can be cut into the container and framed in to allow for standard windows and doors After the framing is complete the electrical and plumbing systems can be installed Again the wiring and routing of plumbing is very similar to that of a standard home with the exception of spatial requirements Ventilationcentral heating and cooling is a major challenge due to the height restrictions of the containers A standard ventilation system is possible however with the usage of shallow ductwork concealed within a slightly suspended ceiling Also radiant heating and cooling systems require less space because of their use of hoses instead of metal ventilation ducts The insulation methodology is againsimilar to that of a home constructed by a standard methodology Both insulating foam and blown insulation are possible insulation methods and due to the internal framing space is available to do either method Many cargo container homes have become very successful in creating a modern appealing interior design Figure 6b features the interior of a cargo container home The application of drywall hardwood flooring standard appliances and furniture and lighting creates a home that is very similar to a modern home constructed using a standard methodology (ie without using cargo containers)
    2 Educational adaptation
    Materials and Methods of Building Construction (Curriculum code ArchE2103) course in Missouri S&T Architectural Engineering Program covers a variety of educational methodologies such as traditional lectures assigned supplementary reading documentary movies demonstrations (material test site visit and brick masonry wall mockup assembly) discussion group and handson learning experiences Among these methodologies a discussionwork group was created consisting of three or four students working together completing handson tasks The discussionlab section of the course was divided into four modules One of these modules focused on the implementation of cargo containers as a structural unit for an office space design The duration of this study was three weeks with eleven teams Cargo containers are of particularly interest as a design platform because of their emerging popularity worldwide They are very versatile because of their durability and relatively low cost thus make for an interesting subject in showcasing the possibility of modular design Problembased learning (PBL) methodology was applied in this section on cargo container implementation and in the latter module which focused on residential home building utilizing conventional structural systems with variable floor layouts Prior to introducing the PBL blocks a series of preparatory learning blocks were offered This allows the students to become more acquainted with the subject Preparatory blocks should provide students with knowledge they can apply in PBL blocks and the PBL blocks motivate students to explore further indepth study11 The discussion group study is also grouped in second module of the course and it can also be classified as preparatory learning block In introducing this topic to students a short presentation was given providing an overview of this design concept as well as details into the specification of the cargo containers’ design Getting a little more specific this short presentation included the information regarding materials of construction standard dimensions load capacity limitations reason of usage in construction industry and lastly some builtup samples This problem is being introduced to the class to be identified formulated and solved as a real life problem with architectural engineering practice One of the challenges of this assignment is determining the boundary or scope of work This study which is rather open ended allows for students to purse the idea further with their own research or imagination
    Due to time limitation of three weeks typical building layouts are handedout to the students at the beginning Therefore it was not a design studio activity but an activity for each team to discuss the subject and make an assessment of requirements mentioned in the rubric Results of the activity were submitted as assignments From the construction of the models the groups learned the design features critical points construction methods and building envelope of the cargo container
    Each team submitted the results of discussion on a 20’’ x 30’’ foam board as Poster Presentation (including text and images) (70 of grading) b Scaled model with cardboard (150 scale) (30 of grading)
    Expectation from the discussion groups and the content of the poster presentation is mentioned in rubric In the future the groups could present their work as an authority on the subject of cargo container design which would help encourage group collaboration and further discussion Scaled models were assessed as sufficient or insufficient The minimum requirements for successful completion of the cargo container design are a complete consideration of all of the design challenges presented in their poster The posters were graded as per handedout rubric These items were to be addressed as if the group were to implement a particular solution to this problem and for addressing the challenges of completing an inhabitable and marketable office
    Space
    The grade of the group is reflected by the successful completion of two different tasks the poster which has details of the solution for successful design completion and the scaled model of the buildingsite made from prescribed materials which in this case was foam board and corrugated paper Samples of poster presentation and scaled models in 150 are shown in Figure 8 and 9 These models were graded on their accuracy workmanship and design vision and are a great method for understanding the 3dimensional space of each building layout
    each steps were clearly defined initially Therefore students’ feedback was fairly positive as 827 out of 10 Similarly scaled model assembly as term project was a task project having clearly defined handouts (design guide) prior the activity Whereas students have to think outside the box in cargo container design activity In Table 2 number 1 and 3 activities can be named as the task projects but number 2 – cargo container design activity was a discipline project This can be the possible reason of having lowest rate of educational significance In terms of analogy of a football game this means that playing field is specified some overriding guidelines are given for the game but the ball has not been kicked off and thus the group must enter the field and set the game into play The freedom on design or studied subject is increased and limitation on PBL is decreased in discipline project than the task project12 each steps were clearly defined initially Therefore students’ feedback was fairly positive as 827
    out of 10 Similarly scaled model assembly as term project was a task project having clearly defined handouts (design guide) prior the activity Whereas students have to think outside the box in cargo container design activity In Table 2 number 1 and 3 activities can be named as the task projects but number 2 – cargo container design activity was a discipline project This can be the possible reason of having lowest rate of educational significance In terms of analogy of a football game this means that playing field is specified some overriding guidelines are given for the game but the ball has not been kicked off and thus the group must enter the field and set the game into play The freedom on design or studied subject is increased and limitation on PBL is decreased in discipline project than the task project12
    Table 2 Average rate of significance of educational activities
    In order to increase the rate of significance of this educational activity critical points are determined and some improvements are proposed herein
    3 Conclusion
    Cargo containers are a valuable modular construction material to be considered when designing a home They have the structural capability and design parameters to produce a standard living home in a variety of ways Cargo container homes are both sustainable and cost effective due to the repurposing of the container itself Container homes can be designed very similarly to a standard home and should be heavily considered in today’s market Design standards like those presented in this paper should be standardized in order to create an efficient design process to produce cargo container homes on a larger magnitude In order to increase the popularity of this reusable modular construction units future architectural engineers shall be promoted and they have to be competent over basic design features By using existing design parameters of cargo containers a discussion group project has been created as a real life problem The discipline project as part of problembased learning lead the students to think outside the box which was the main goal of this educational adaptation Student survey shows that positive feed backs received from the students but improvement is necessary to increase the effectiveness of this activity
    Container originally just simple means of transport but it has been found it can also be used for the living container housing such a way of living at the same time it seems that both global and local temporary and permanent the finite and the infinite these qualities container holds tension let it become the queen of amazing buildings First in the container has not been possible to test but referred to the container houses I am afraid that many people will naturally associate to the last century 60s hippie hippie movement and beat generation of classics in the road began to eventually box type trailer shadow Hippies commune wandering life style to express their opposition to nationalism and the Vietnam War to promote non traditional religious culture to criticize the western middle class values The box type trailer is the best carrier of this way of life
    Container house and trailer house is so similar to a variety of ways compared both as building use can be used as a special topic to study For example in addition to the activities of a trailer home dressed as this kind of lack of imagination to look outside trailer homes are indeed not much creative space The container is completely different as they will be in use when building its modular nature provides a free and creative imagination Between the container between product design architectural design and artistic creation in this sense they mark the highest achievement in a field is also the most basic elements of another field As for the product design is crucial to their development and all related freight transportation and technical aspects of the As for architectural design the magic of the container is reflected in many aspects especially as the independent characteristics of the basic components of the They are both highly accurate and complex coordination technology products and is completely flexible and free source of imagination
    In 2001 the container city developer Urban Space Management was appointed to the company is the expansion of the London Tower Hamlets College offers a container floor affiliated teaching
    Generally speaking the container construction will be concentrated in the coastal port cities and container terminal and urban landscape formed a kind of interactive relationship the container used for container shipping industry related work and need for construction purposes But in a larger range containers are used to project construction and related construction purposes and construction of emergency medical aid station in the reason mainly container housing provides the most convenient means to solve the problem of temporary buildings not only the construction is simple and the cost is inexpensive and can be built on the foundations of a variety of conditions In addition container house also widely is used to some other place and use such as temporary shelter temporary restaurants street shops and so on mostly belonging to the construction on sporadic and scattered in every corner of the city this kind of container architecture although the lack of size and momentum but the site and function of type variables tend to produce the ingenuity of architectural space and form
    A combination of environmental protection and fashion
    Essentially fashionable and environmental protection exists a paradox it is difficult to say who stood in long lines to buy price thousands of bags are environmentally friendly Most of the time the socalled green design simply means the latest technology and a lot of money
    The reason is that the container architecture is a combination of environmental and fashionable because first of all the exploration on the possibility of container architecture uses is exciting from disaster relief shelters first aid to luxury apartments villas roadside shops adventure camp container almost to be transformed into any use of housing It is like a prefabricated space take a different approach to reconstruction according to the usage and a series of living facilities can easily complete the transformation The construction method of preform greatly save construction period save manpower reduce production cost so as to obtain a only takes few cost and labor and greater use of conventional materials space Even compared with the activities of the housing market board room old secondhand container transformed into the container houses still have their cost advantage On the surface board room 300500 yuan square meters after the renovation of the container house was sold to 1000 yuan square meters but board and container housing comfort is significant differences And board room demolition twice after basically can not use container house can relocate several times and the service life of more than 10 years The cost to 810 then to sell scrap steel can form Secondly the use of more than 10 years of container due to peeling paint a box body deformation and higher maintenance costs and gradually withdraw from the logistics field and the old secondhand container due to the full image that was abandoned after still having original after a simple cutting combination still has the value of renewable container house will make container extend the useful life of more than 10 years This cycle of waste used containers of reuse the original high carbon steel plate materials can be fully used by steelmaking melted down and the repeated pollution is reduced and the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions is to reduce the consumption of resources and adverse effects on the environment A waste recycling secondhand container can save 17 tons of steel and 04 cubic meters of timber reduce 349 tons of carbon dioxide If 100 thousand old secondhand container using a year 349 thousand tons of carbon dioxide emissions can be 340 million saving electricity Based on the above two points containerSix) simple natural building environment design
    1 indoor furniture layout reasonable simple and practical Emphasize the natural texture the use of natural wood materials to create the space for decorative plants and other natural elements the life of people in the city to return to natural emotional compensation Create a chastity fresh and natural practical and comfortable environment
    2 indoor wall with vertical wood one can play the effect of thermal insulation the two is to make the whole space visually extending the height of the space is not so crowded
    3 room three transparent sunny the light changes to enhance the atmosphere of the space with artistic conception and appeal to meet the aesthetic requirements of the people
    4 two floor balcony is designed by the methods of Roof garden to add some details also increase the color for the whole building The indoor and outdoor transparent integration to create an open space of flow In the warm afternoon sipping a cup of tea jump to the distant sea how a quality suggestive of poetry or painting
    Our life is modern light and environmental protection For the living space of perception we continue to breed with a young desire It may be just a little space it is the stretch the freedom of heaven it must be close to nature always feel the pulsating nature the window must green water beautiful wonderful elegant style its price must be amiable do not want to let housing becomes life burden The mood for love we refuse mediocrity we shouted to enjoy life enjoy the wonderful
    Biographical information
    Christopher M Moore Undergraduate Student Department of CivilArchitectural and Environmental Engineering Missouri University of Science and Technology email cmmnpb@mstedu
    Semih G Yildirim PhD (Corresponding Author) Visiting Scholar Department of Civil Architectural and Environmental Engineering Missouri University of Science and Technology email yildirims@mstedu
    Stuart W Baur PhD Associate Professor Department of Civil Architectural and
    Environmental Engineering Missouri University of Science and Technology
    email baur@mstedu
























    Using shipping containers to provide temporary housing in postdisaster recovery Social case studies
    Abstract
    Housing that makes use of the ubiquitous general purpose shipping container is becoming more commonly seen as a useful way of reusing the empty vessels as valuable accommodation In particular the application of shipping container temporary housing is suited to postdisaster situations design examples of which can be found in the literature However ensuring the success of implementing such projects in a postdisaster setting requires investigation into the social considerations of temporary housing This research takes a qualitative approach focusing particularly on case studies of temporary housing experiences following the Hurricane Katrina in 2005 the Christchurch Earthquake in 2011 and a field study of 2009 Black Saturday bushfireaffected communities in Victoria Australia Key social factors found to be significant to the success of shipping container temporary planning byauthorities taking into account the varying characteristics of different types of disasters
    © 2014 The Authors Published by Elsevier BV This is an open access article under the CC BYNCND license (httpcreativecommonsorglicensesbyncnd30)
    Selection andor peerreviewed under responsibility of the Centre for Disaster Resilience School of the Built Environment
    University of Salford Keywords Shipping containers disaster postdisaster recovery temporary housing social issues
    Often in the event of natural disasters such as bushfires flooding and earthquakes large numbers of people are displaced from their homes and require temporary housing Current practice for postdisaster emergency shelter usually involves the use of large communal areas like stadiums or showgrounds where relief centres and temporary accommodations (usually tents) are provided as seen in the case of Hurricane Katrina (Nigg et al 2006) Whilst these are quick to set up disaster survivors also need accommodation and facilities set up for longer term recovery Shelter and housing provided for victims of disasters falls along a continuum usually including four categories from predisaster emergency shelters temporary shelters temporary housing to permanent rehousing (Quarantelli 1995 and Nigg et al 2006) This research assesses the utilization of used shipping containers in postdisaster housing applications particularly temporary shelters and temporary housing However discrete categories for post disaster shelter are becoming decreasingly relevant It has become apparent that long term and long distance displacement like that seen after Hurricane Katrina can create a grey area between immediate shelter and permanent housing (Levine et al 2007) Following natural disasters reconstruction projects are sandwiched between the immediate necessity to act promptly and the longterm need for sustainable community development resulting in policyaffecting realities of conflicting paradigms (Johnson et al 2006) These trends reflect the increasing demand for innovation and flexibility in the traditional post disaster housing response Many temporary housing projects (Davidson et al 2007 Christensen and Worzala 2010) are geared towards community engagement to enable better social outcomes for disaster victims but the implementation of projects
    such as these is fraught with issues relating to proper skill utilization and effective management Although it is widely accepted that success of temporary housing projects lies in community participation in reality this does not translate into practice despite the fact that the participation of users in upfront decisionmaking leads to positive results in terms of building process and outcomes (Davidson et al 2007) In addition Lindell and Prater (2003) highlight the need for community cohesion in disaster situations as being the key to lessening the impacts of disasters This has relevance here in the mobilization of social capital in the community selfdetermination of temporary housing needs postdisaster Yet it is often seen that disaster reconstruction is driven by technology restricting wider engagement with cultural and social issues (Hayles 2010) Further to this true sustainability comesfrom utilization of local knowledge and labour which can create microeconomies that aid in the recovery process(Johnson 2007a) This is pertinent to every temporary housing project with goals of sustainability The use of modified shipping containers is not yet widespread in postdisaster temporary housing applications Much knowledge exists about using shipping containers in housing applications yet for the most part approaches inadequately address the multifaceted economic social and logistical issues inherent in using shipping containers as dwellings and few focus on the additional complexities associated with postdisaster temporary housing (Christensen and Worzala 2010) In addition many are prohibitively expensive for application in disaster relief applications One example is the Future Shack developed by an Australian architect Sean Godsell which was one of the first attempts to utilize shipping containers in temporary housing being assembled in 24 hours and having minimum cuts necessary in the container However the cost of one Future Shack exceeds 30000 (Sean Godsell Architects 2001) which is hardly suitable for true post disaster applications In addition Global Portable Buildings offers disaster recovery temporary housing solutions fashioned from shipping containers (Global Portable Buildings 2011) however these are also prohibitively expensive in many postdisaster applications and are made from new shipping containers eroding the benefits of reusing those empty containers stockpiled in ports all over the world In a post disaster context the higher the level of resources being invested in temporary housing measures the less are available for permanent reconstruction This highlights the merit in strategies that both reduce the cost and improve the prospects of reuse or of evolution of shipping container temporary housing into permanent housing
    There are several other design examples in the literature of postdisaster temporary housing incorporating the use of shipping containers including designs for whole villages made up of modular units designed with families in mindPena et al (2012) show temporary housing design solutions that aim to exploit shipping containers inherent benefitsrelating to strength reusability and portability Although these designs are technically sound in terms of structural integrity services and logistics little available literature seems to look into the broader issues surrounding social suitability of implementing a shipping container temporary housing project Research into practical social aspects of the implementation of such plans with which the current paper is concerned will enable a greater understanding of some of the key social issues which are inherent in topdown reconstruction approaches A useful insight relevant here is from Davis (1978) whose work on post disaster sheltering is central to today’s understanding of the issue – Survivors priorities in order of importance are to remain as close as possible to the site of their ruined homes and means of livelihood to move temporarily into homes of families or friends to improvise temporary shelters as close as possible to the site of their ruined homes (these shelters frequently evolve into rebuilt houses) and to occupy emergency shelters provided by external agenciesIncreasing the knowledge base in terms of implementing appropriate shipping container temporary housing and examining how communities function postdisaster will allow a higher level of successful holistic and sustainable design solutions that balance technical feasibility affordability and social appropriateness This paper looks into the practical aspects of implementing postdisaster temporary accommodation using modified shipping containers by examining social considerations and lessons learned from key case studies It does not propose new designs for shelters or delve into indepth logistical study but rather looks at how designs may be successfully implemented to ensure culturally appropriate solutions to the issue of temporary housing postdisaster and could lead to higher levels of comfort sanitation and social cohesion postdisaster as well as contribute to quicker more organized provision of shelter in overall disaster response Methods used include a qualitative field study into temporary housing experiences of the 2009 Black Saturday bushfire affected communities in Victoria in addition to case studies looking into housing experiences following Hurricane Katrina in 2005 in the US and the Christchurch Earthquakes of 2011 The context of this research sits within broader areas of knowledge relating to postdisaster housing and community cohesion as well as shipping container architecture
    The study consists of two main qualitative research components a field study of housing experiences of Black Saturday bushfire affected people involving focus group discussions and a multiple site case study The study aims to answer the following research questions
    · What factors affect suitability of using shipping containers for postdisaster temporary housing
    · What lessons have been learned in terms of key social outcomes from temporary housing for Hurricane Katrina and the Christchurch Earthquakes of 2011
    · Would shipping container temporary housing be suitable for disasters similar to Victoria's Black Saturday bush fires in February 2009
    · What social issues are paramount in the implementation of a shipping container temporary housing project
    · How could these issues be addressed to ensure the best possible social outcomes
    For this topic a significant volume of information is needed in order to make learned conclusions about social aspects of postdisaster temporary housing The combination of case study and focus group discussions as a field study enables a significant amount of data to be analy sed beyond that practical to achieve by primary data collection methods alone The case study uncovered key issues in provision of postdisaster temporary housing which would prove difficult to investigate on a firstperson primary data basis as the disasters occurred in different countries These issues are contrasted with insights from focus group discussions to enable conclusions to be drawn about social suitability of shipping container emergency housing for postdisaster applications A summary of research methods can be found in Table 1
    The two sites chosen for this study are the 2011 Christchurch earthquakes and Hurricane Katrina in the US(2005) These were chosen as good counterpoints to the Black Saturday investigation being examples of natural disasters in developed countries and thus temporary housing and support experiences could be comparable This multisite study enables cross case comparisons of the constructed picture of the sites and also informs the Black Saturday field study in terms of lessons learnedFrom research into available literature on temporary postdisaster housing and categorizing shipping container housing into the modular housing group suitable for longer time frames than emergency shelters the following points affecting suitability have been identified It is important to note that these factors are not an exhaustive list of those affecting temporary housing suitability but provide a broad picture of variables relevant to the use of modular
    temporary housing such as shipping container units They are drawn from studies by Gionvinazzi and Stevenson (2011) in Christchurch and Johnson (2007b) and Nigg et al (2006) after Hurricane Katrina Level of damage to homes Use of modular temporary housing such as shipping container units will be determined by the need for temporary housing options postdisaster whether the damage to homes is sufficient to require displacement Numbers of displaced people and scale of disaster areaModular housing options such as shipping container units are useful for a range of impact areas for a largescale disaster involving high numbers of displaced such as Hurricane Katrina or smaller numbers of displaced This is due to the inherent modularity of shipping container
    housing options and the flexibility of arrangement It is estimated that around 12 million people were displaced by Hurricane Katrina within hours or days of the disaster (Nigg et al 2006) Thus the speed of displacement is also an important factor affecting demand for temporary housingAvailability of rental properties or vacant accommodation in surrounding areasAs was seen during the recovery
    after the Christchurch earthquakes a service was set up to match victims seeking temporary accommodation with available rental properties the majority being holiday homes and the like (Gionvinazzi et al 2011 p 3) However many disasters are of such scale that the displaced people cannot be accommodated with existing vacant dwellings In such cases modular designs like those involving the use of shipping containers may be a useful optionProjected timeline for damage repairhousing replacement Modular and shipping container emergency housing is inherently suited to the medium term as provision is not as fast or cheap as using tents Therefore it may be better suited to disasters with a long timeframe for rebuilding of permanent dwellings or even scope for incorporation intopermanent dwellings
    A review of key characteristics of typical disasters against the above factors gives the suitability for using shipping container temporary housing as shown in Table 2 It can be argued from Table 2 that shipping container temporary housing is less suited to disasters that render large areas inaccessible for long periods of time like inundation More suitable are disasters like bushfires that have up to several days warning lead time and the affected area can be accessed relatively quickly after the disaster
    12 32 Lessons learned in terms of key social outcomes from temporary housing
    Published material on temporary housing experiences postdisaster in the two cases were analysed and synthesized The lessons have been grouped into temporary housing implementation lessons and planning lessonswhich are central to the success of shipping container temporary housing projects
    Planning
    · Reliable estimates of temporary housingsheltering requirements are needed For Katrina government planning failed to anticipate the need for shelter and temporary housing adequately (Nigg et al 2006)
    · Planning needs to accommodate the possibility of far and wide displacement and extended dislocation as in the case of Katrina evacuees were registered in every state and almost half of the ZIP codes in the United States tens of thousands were more than one thousand miles away from New Orleans (Nigg et al 2006 p117)
    · Mechanisms set up to coordinate housing relief had not been tested prior to Hurricane Katrina and also to a lesser extent in Christchurch Decisionmakers responsible for housing relief need to develop working relationships with counterparts during nondisaster times to ensure cooperation (Gionvinazzi et al 2011)Temporary housing implementation
    · Temporary housing often ends up lasting longer than intended sometimes decades with negative social consequences for the displaced persons Gionvinazzi et al (2011) put forward the growing trend of skipping mediumterm housing which is a major drain on the resources available for permanent housing and proceeding from temporary sheltering straight to reconstructing housing to a similar standard of permanent housing but with a cost on par with provisional housing
    · Temporary housing efforts must take into account the fluid and dynamic nature of sheltering needs as described by Quarantelli (1995) Shipping container temporary housing needs to be adaptable to these changing requirements For example shipping container units can be used as both centralized temporary shelter and longer term temporary housing on victim’s properties
    · Aldrich and Crook (2008) brought up the issue of siting the temporary housing post Katrina which was supplied by FEMA in the form of mobile home trailers (caravans) most citizens recognized the need for facilities like trailer parks and modular homes but many sought that these facilities be placed elsewhere The lesson here is reflective of the complexities of postdisaster social structures and any shipping container temporary housing project must be flexible in its siting options in order to avoid unwanted social effects of creating social hierarchies or enclaves
    2 4 Field study – Black Saturday
    Three focus group discussions were undertaken with volunteer participants drawn from communities affected by the Black Saturday bushfires of February 2009 in the Glendonald Road Fire (Victorian Government 2010) area communities of Callignee Traralgon South and Koornalla These focus groups were held at the Callignee Hall and covered community dynamics postdisaster experiences of temporary housing support and how housing situations affected recovery The participants of focus group were recruited from a range of community groups including frompositions of authority within the community Gender balance was also sought in recruiting participants
    21 41 Suitability of shipping container temporary housing for Black Saturday bushfires
    Drawing on factors affecting suitability uncovered the previous case study and exploring this in the focus groups the results indicate mixed suitability of shipping container temporary housing to the example of the 2009 Black Saturday bushfires for the area researched (Callignee Traralgon South and Koornalla) The level of damageto homes resulted in displacement of a large proportion of the community with data suggesting around three quarters of the homes in the fire affected area being destroyed (Victorian Government 2010) However the population density of the area is quite low being mixed semirural and farming Thus the number of displaced people from the 139 homes was low enough that they could largely be absorbed into rental properties and friendfamily homes in the neighbouring towns of Traralgon and Morwell as no communal temporary housing facilities were set up in the aftermath It would seem that there were enough available rental properties to absorb those displaced Renting seemed to be the first option explored by many focus group participants who lost their homes On the Sunday afternoon we got a phone call from an acquaintance who said he had a house that was vacant that we could rent if we'd like [we thought] there's going to be a lot of people that are going to try and get a place to rent In addition focus groups indicated that the fire affected area was inaccessible for up to several weeks after the fire due to the coroner's lockdown of the area where fatalities occurred which would prohibit access for any temporary housing work to be carried out
    22 42 Social issues in the implementation of a shipping container temporary housing project
    A key recurring theme arising in the focus groups was that of the wish to stay in the community after the fire either on their own blocks or as near as they could getI would have preferred to stay in the community we felt like we were away from all that was happening [in the community] Focus group participant who experienced displacementFurther to this there was some resistance to the idea of a centralized temporary housing camp with objections relating to the social issues arising from having a high density of victims living in close proximity for several months to years as well as a yearning to get back on their own blocks of land We were out there for the lifestyle the peace and quiet Postdisaster we wanted to get back to that lifestyle as quickly as possible Focus group participant Flexibility in temporary housing arrangements was also a key theme Avoidance of a one size fits all approach was underlined and also it was identified that assistance with temporary housing be fair as well as flexible some people won't want to live in a shipping container and grants towards alternative solutions like renting in a nearby area was brought up as a solution The provision by authorities of advice and facilitation of time for victims to think about how to choose their preferred temporary housing assistance was also brought up and emphasis was put on
    facilitating selfdetermination of temporary housing choices by victims Temporary housing initiatives having the characteristic of being community driven was also identified as an important positive factor to aid in the recovery process That being said it was brought up that temporary housing solutions although they should be flexible in some aspects should have a specific time frame for use to encourage reconstruction in a timely way Reports arose of some victims living in provisional housing (converted sheds etc) at the time of the study over 4 years after the bushfire Further to this economical use of shipping container temporary housing units was raised as an important factor to get right with ideas to have units on victim’s blocks with the possibility of incorporation into permanent housing or a system of government buyback for reuse in another disaster application This ties in with earlier themes of flexibility in ownership Another important recurring issue with temporary housing experiences in the groups was the duplication of information and resources for victims by the authorities Victims reported being asked to detail their needs or experiences multiple times to different agencies that meant well but failed to have sufficient interagency coordination to avoid duplication
    23 43 Strategies to address the issues to ensure the best possible social outcomes
    Drawing from focus group data and the social considerations raised in the discussions one of the key issues relates to the wish of victims to stay in the community after the disaster and to return to their properties This could be addressed by designing a temporary housing system that allows for deployment of shipping container units onto individual properties provided that a suitable space exists and services are available This would mean a lag time after the disaster when destroyed houses have to be cleared to make way for the shipping container unit and also for
    the unit to be connected to the existing services to the block While this was happening those displaced would have to be accommodated in shortterm temporary shelters or other means That being said securing suitable locations for 1temporary housing camps has been identified as often taking the longest time in the temporary housing provision schedule (Barakat 2003) and so skirting this issue by avoiding central camps in favour of units on victim’s properties could have a positive effect on scheduling as well as being socially appropriate Flexibility in ownership another important consideration raised in the focus groups could be achieved through creative postdisaster relief policy design Provision could be made in temporary housing assistance for victims to receive a shipping container unit or instead use the assistance towards rent or other housing measures should a unit be unsuitable for their circumstances Not everyone wants to live in a shipping container they should get alternative assistance to keep things fair Focus group participant
    Construction of an optin government buyback policy of the shipping container units after permanent rebuilding has been achieved could offer increased flexibility and the purchased units could be stored ready for use in another postdisaster application This is one way to minimize the diversion of resources away from permanent reconstruction efforts another key issue raised in focus groups as money generated from the buyback could be used by victims to continue their house rebuilding or repair Yet another method of ensuring relevance and usefulness of shipping container temporary housing to affected communities is provision in the design for future incorporation into permanent rebuilding This would aid in addressing not only the flexibility in ownership issue but also economic use of resources and reducing the incidences of resources being diverted away from permanent rebuilding to provide temporary housing Incorporation of units into permanent buildings is also inherently flexible due to the inbuilt modularity of shipping containers
    3 5 Discussion of results
    The purpose of this study was to systematically examine postdisaster temporary housing experiences to reveal the social suitability of utilizing shipping containers in postdisaster temporary housing applications From the results it can be seen that there is scope for suitability in certain situations providing the design of such a project addresses key societal issues surrounding ownership flexibility policy planning and economic use of resources These findings enhance the picture of existing knowledge of community issues surrounding post disaster temporary housing in the wider disaster literature as well as furthering knowledge about shipping container architecture and its application in realworld contexts This research contributes valuable insights to the implementation of shipping container temporary housing which could improve practical social outcomes of post disaster housing and aid in the overall recovery process The transferability of these research outcomes is somewhat dependent on the context of the disaster and further work would need to be done in terms of the best postdisaster situations for using shipping container temporary housing However the main findings of the field study are relevant to a wide range of settings because concepts such as ownership arrangements and sustainable use of housing resources tie in with basic human tendencies in
    community organization The limitations of this study lie in the restricted scope and sample size of the field study with the focus group data representing the community experiences of only one area affected on Black Saturday To minimize the possibility of bias larger studies of increased scope are required although effort was made to include a wide crosssection of community members in the focus groups Nevertheless the study has been structured to include case studies to distill other key lessons and data themes in addition to the field study in order to broaden the
    context of the results For the case studies there was a reliance on previous work looking at temporary housing experiences of Christchurch and Katrina and so any limitations of those studies will carry through in this study Points of interest in the data include the international trend of in postdisaster housing provision skipping medium term housing in favour of rapidly built permanent housing constructed to a similar budget of provisional housing as was the case after the L'Aquila earthquake in Italy in 2009 (Gionvinazzi et al 2011 p5) This ties in with the idea of constructing temporary housing in such a way so that it is possible for it to evolve into permanent housing to a suitable construction standard as identified in the focus groups Both approaches minimize a pitfall ofmany postdisaster temporary housing projects diversion of precious resources away from permanent reconstruction Further research that will improve knowledge in this area has uses in tying together the social considerations uncovered in this study with designs for shipping container temporary housing systems that can facilitate successful community outcomes
    4 6 Conclusions and recommendations
    The research outcomes presented in this paper provide insights into the suitability and social issues surrounding shipping container temporary housing projects in postdisaster situations relating to the need for flexiblecoordinated planning for temporary housing that that utilizes community social capital and is innovative in siting reuse and ownership structure of shipping container units In addition acknowledgement exists that these are not suitable for all postdisaster applications and that more research is needed for suitability in different contexts Implementation of such temporary housing projects need a focus on knowledge management to build on past lessons from other disasters and to avoid the tendency to focus efforts on technical innovation at the expense of social appropriateness Disaster relief temporary housing policy needs to be developed in partnership with affected communities with those experiencing disasters in the past contributing firsthand knowledge to enable a reconstruction response based on socially appropriate solutions This will greatly benefit future disaster survivors
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    Current developments in organic farming
    Abstract
    Organic farming uses almost exclusively biological and natural materials and processes to produce food The practice aims to protect human health and conserve maintain or enhance natural resources with the goal to preserve the quality of the environment for future generations while being economically sustainable Organic farming has grown rapidly throughout the world in recent years Currently Australia (Oceania) has the largest land areas under organic farming Liechtenstein (Europe) the highest percentage of organic area and Mexico (Latin America) the greatest number of organic farms worldwide One of the most valuable benefits of organic farming is the improvement in soil quality which can be expressed in terms of chemical physical and biological properties and their interactions In this article we will discuss the properties regulations and impacts of organic farming on human livelihood and the environment
    Overview of organic farming
    Organic farming has expanded rapidly in recent years and is seen as a sustainable alternative to chemicalbased agricultural systems (Stockdale et al 2001 Biao et al 2003 Avery 2007) Its annual growth rate has been about 20 for the last decade (Lotter 2003) accounting for over 31 million hectares (ha) and generating over 26 billion US dollars in annual trade worldwide (Yussefi 2006) Nutrient management in organic farming systems is often based on soil fertility building via nitrogen (N) fixation and nutrient recycling of organic materials such as farmyard manure and crop residues with limited inputs from permitted fertilizers (Gosling and Shepherd 2005) Although organic farming has been criticized for relying on the buildup of soil phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) by past fertilization before converting to organic (Nguyen et al 1995 Greenland 2000 Løes and Øgaard 2001) its acceptance and popularity are growing due mostly to environmental and healthrelated concerns (Biao et al 2003 Galantini and Rosell 2006) Arecent polling of residents of Ontario Canada reveals that more than half think organic food is more nutritious twothirds believe organic food is safer than conventionally grown food and 9 out of 10 believe organic fruits and vegetables are grown without pesticides of any kind (Avery2007)The aims and principles of organic farming as presented in the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) Basic Standards for production and processing are listed in Table 1 A shift to organic agriculture brings about significant changes restricted use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides increases of other inputs such as organic materials labor perhaps machinery cultural practices (eg crop
    rotation) and better knowledge of biological processes These changes have serious implications Thus farmers should consider the following issues before practicing organics (FAO 1998)
    * Labor inputs Labor is important to the production process and can be an impediment to the adoption of organic agriculture Compared to largescale mechanized agricultural systems organic farming appears more laborintensive Many techniques used in organic farming require significant labor(eg strip farming nonchemical weeding composting) In the developed world labor scarcity and costs may deter farmers from adopting organic systems This may also be true for cashpoor farmers and those supplementing their incomes with offfarm work However where labor is not a constraint organic agriculture can provide employment opportunities especially in rural communities Furthermore the diversification of crops typically found on organic farms with their various planting and harvesting
    schedules may result in more work opportunities for women and a more evenly distributed labor demand which helps stabilize employment
    * Other productionrelated inputs The absence of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides in organic farming necessitates other inputs from manure addition to crop selection or irrigation Farmers' knowledge of local conditions and of traditional practices is essential to the success of organic farming The emphasis of crop varieties and animal breeds used in organic agriculture is on local suitability with respect to disease resistance and adaptability to local climate
    * Crop rotation This operation is required under organic certification
    programs and is considered essential in organic management Agricultural pests are often specific to the host (ie a particular crop) and will multiply as long as the crop is there Alternating crops in time (rotations) or space (strip cropping and intercropping) is therefore an important tool for controlling pests and also for maintaining soil fertility As the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides allows the farmer to grow the crop that is financially most rewarding not using those inputs may limit the choice of crops The success of an organic farm depends on the identification of enduses andor markets for all the crops in the rotation as few farmers can afford to leave fields fallowThis remains one of the most significant challenges in organic agriculture
    * Yield Yields on organic farms although may not be as high as those produced by conventional practices fall within an acceptable range (Avery 2007) Encouragingly organically produced yields currently are significantly higher than those produced before the 1950s Part of this progress can be attributed to new varieties and better knowledge of biological processes used in farming For example if N miner alization is slow because of coolwet growingconditions crops on organic farms may not have sufficient N early in the season However better knowledge on N synchronization between N release by manures and N demand by crops could minimize or even eliminate this N deficiency problem (Hue and Silva 2000 Myers et al 1997)
    Definition of organic farming
    There are many definitions of organic farming which is also known as ecological agriculture (Gosling et al 2006) or biodynamic agriculture (Lampkin 2002) Some have considered organic farming and sustainable agriculture synonymous because they are both based on sustainability of agro ecological systems Sustainability can be defined as meeting the need of the present without compromising the ability of future generations (WCED 1987) The word organic is legally protected in some countries avoiding their
    indiscriminate use in nonorganic products In the European Union (EU) for example this word has been protected since the early 1990s in English speaking countries The equivalent in French Italian Portuguese and Dutch speaking countries is biological and ecological in Danish German and Spanishspeaking countries (FAO 1998) Organic farming according to Henning etal (1991) is both a philosophy and a system of farming grounded in values that reflect an awareness of ecological and social realities and the ability of the individual to take
    effective actions In practice it is designed to work with natural processes to conserve resources encourage selfregulation through diversity to minimize waste and environmental impacts while preserving farm profitabilityAccording to Lampkin (1994 1997) the aim of organic farming is to create integrated humane environmentally and economically sustainable production systems which maximize reliance on farmderived renewable resources and the management of ecological and biological processes and interactions so as to provide acceptable levels of crop livestock and human nutrition protection from pests and disease and an appropriate return to the human and other resources As such organic farming shares the fundamental objectives of agricultural sustainability and is deserved to be assessed as a mainstream part of sustainable agriculture (EdwardJones and Howells 2001) IFOAM (2000) has defined organic agriculture as a process that develops a viable and sustainable agro ecosystem In practical terms organic farming is a form of agriculture that shies away from synthetic inputs such as pesticides and fertilizers (because of their negative effects on the ecological balance) but uses agricultural practices such as crop rotation proper spacing between plants incorporation of organic matter into the soil and composting (Kuo et al 2004) With restrictions on the use of chemical fertilizers the principal challenge to converting a conventional farm to an organic one is to provide N K (because these two elements are required at rather large quantities by most crops and because they are easily leached from soils) and to a lesser extent other plant nutrients at rates and times to ensure acceptable crop yields (Rodrigues et al 2006 Hue and Silva 2000)
    Production requirements in organic farming
    While conventional farming needs abundant manmade resources organic farming makes use of functional integrity of the system (Boelling et al 2003) Organic farming depends on the local environment (soil water) and less powerful tools (heavy equipment) Although the exact production methods vary general principles include the exclusion of most synthetic biocides and fertilizers the management of soils through addition of organic materials and use of crop rotation (IFOAM 1998) The requirements (which apply to the way the product is created not to the measurable properties of the product itself) by the USDA National Organic Program (NOP) are summarized as follows (NOP 2006)
    Crop requirements
    Land will have no prohibited substances applied to it for at least 3 years before the harvest of an organic crop The use of genetic engineering (included in excluded methods)ionizing radiation and sewage sludge is prohibitedSoil fertility and crop nutrients will be managed through tillage and cultivation practices crop rotations and cover crops supplemented with animal and crop waste materials and allowed synthetic materials Preference will be given to the use of organic seeds and other planting stock but a farmer may use nonorganic seeds and planting stock under specified conditions Crop pests weeds and diseases will be controlled primarily through management practices including biological controlsphysical mechanical and When these practices are not sufficient a biological botanical or synthetic substance approved for use on the National List may be used
    Livestock requirements
    Animals for slaughter must be raised under organic management from the last third of gestation or no later than the second day of life for poultry Producers are required to feed livestock agricultural feed products that are 100 percent organic but may also provide allowed vitamin and mineral supplements Producers may convert an entire distinct dairy herd to organic production by providing 80 percent organically produced feed for 9 months followed by 3 months of 100 percent organically produced feed Organically raised animals may not be given hormones to promote growth or antibiotics for any reason Preventive management practices including the use of vaccines will be used to keep animals healthy Producers are prohibited from withholding treatment from a sick or injured animal however animals treated with a prohibited medication may not be sold as organic All organically raised animals must have access to the outdoors including access to pasture for ruminants They may be temporarily confined only for reasons of health safety the animal's stage of production or to protect soil or water quality The absence of soluble chemical fertilizers and the limited use of natural biocides in organic agriculture mean that it is largely dependent on biological processes for the supply of nutrients (eg N2 fixation) and for protection of crops from pests and disease (Gosling et al 2006) Organic manures could provide essential nutrients to crops but if not properly managed may also promote N losses by denitrification (Smith and Chambers 1993) and ammonia volatilization (Holding 1982) Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) can be used to enhance P uptake Biocontrol agents that may be used in organic systems to control pathogenic fungi do not appear to damage the AMF association (Ravnskov et al 2002 Gaur et al 2004) Fine green sands and feldspars which are natural minerals could provide K (Hue and Silva 2000)
    Neem (Azadirachta indica A) extract could be use as a biocide also the introduction or augmentation of predators or parasites of pests can be implemented for pest control Despite the potentially adverse effect of tillage on soil quality and the high cost of tillage operations tillage forms an important part of weed control strategies in organic systems (Bond and Grundy 2001) That is because low or notill can result in an increase in perennial weed numbers which are difficult to control in the absence of herbicides (Kuowenhoven et al 2002 Torresen et al 2003 Håkansson 2003) Thus there is a limit to which tillage can be reduced in organic systems while maintaining adequate weed control Alternatively mulching with fully biodegradable materials where possible is encouraged in organic production
    Regulations in organic farming
    Factors that are used to classify organic farming may partly vary with local circumstances in terms of needs and availability of resources In countries where organic farming is not widely adopted and where no organic seedlings are available seedlings originating in conventionally managed enterprises may be used on an interim basis (Khristiansen and Merfield 2006) Similarly in such situations manure may not always be available from organic farms and sourcing it from conventional farms may sometimes be allowed The certification of the production process at the farm level as opposed to product certification is specifically chosen to ensure that organic products are indeed grown according to organic standards The task is complicated because it includes ascertainment that the farmer has incorporated a number of practices to cope with soil fertility and pests as appropriate in the particular area where the farm is located (FAO 1998 NOP 2006) Many organizations or countries have their own certification standards which need to be at the same level or stricter than the IFOAM's guidelines In total more than 100 national or regional standards have been developed some of them in developing countries particularly in Latin America Certification can be carried out by an organization outside the country especially if no national standards for organic agriculture are available and no local certifying organization exists Developing countries in particular make use of this possibility as setting up the infrastructure needed for certification of organic products (standards inspection scheme ratification appeal procedures etc) can be costly and is seldom selffinancing especially in the early stages In the early days of organic certification traders found it sometimes difficult to know which schemes genuinely certified organic produce IFOAM has developed an accreditation program which evaluates certification schemes and hence assists both the traders and the evaluated scheme (FAO 1998) Organic farming regulations can be viewed in different ways In the EU certified organic agriculture is viewed as a longterm solution to natural resource conservation concerns restoration of rural landscapes and public health promotion EU countries provide direct and indirect aid to certified organic production and as of 2004 had formed a European Action Plan for Organic Agriculture (GomezTovar et al 2005) The recent use of policy by the EU to develop more environmentally sensitive farming practices has led to a widespread interest in organic farming (van Diepeningen et al 2006) Mexico in contrast has viewed certified organic agriculture as a short term solution to export and foreign exchange concerns International buyers introduced the concept of organic certification into Central American countries At first farmers followed the instructions necessary to fulfill the certification requirements without a clear understanding of the certification process itself To them organic certification was just another rule imposed by the first world with cost being so high that only international buyers were able to afford (The organic standard 2001) Themajor support for smallholder certification efforts has come from foreign foundations At present nearly a quarter of a million hectares (ha) are certified by up to 17 organic certification agencies mostly foreign operating in Mexico and by the Mexican National Certifier (Certimex) that has been formed and accredited under the Department of Agriculture’s National Organic Program Other certifying agencies such as MayaCert in Guatemala EcoLogica and AINCOPOP in Costa Rica and CENIPAE in Nicaragua were initiated These organizations later joined efforts with other certification agencies from South America which were IncaCert (Peru) Biopacha (Bolivia) and BioMuisca (Colombia) to form a Latin American Organic Certification body called BIOLATINA These agencies offer producers such benefits as lower certification cost and clearer communication making organic certification more accessible to small producers This has helped shift the certification authorityresponsibility from buyers to producers giving producers the full right to choose their own buyer (The organic standard 2001) In the United States of America (US) the USDA National Organic Standards are in effect since 2002 (NOP 2006) and there is a national list of substances approved for or prohibited from use in organic production and handling (USDA 2000) To earn certification organic farms must a) have long term soil management plans b) establish buffers between their fields and nearby conventional farms c) meet specific requirements for labeling and record keeping d) use only allowed substances (see Production Requirements) e) keep detailed records of all the materials used in their farming operations (NOP 2006) The products from a certified farm can then be sold as 100 organic where all ingredients must be organically produced organic where 95 of the ingredients must be organic more than 70 organic and less than 70 organic (MAF 2005) In Japan the new agricultural standards for organic products were introduced by the Japanese Ministry of Agriculture in 2000 and have been implemented since April 2001 (ShiMing and Sauerborn 2006) At present Tunisia is the only African country with its own organic (EU compatible) standards certification and inspection systems Egypt and South Africa have both made significant progress in this direction both have two certifying organizations and are well on the way to developing standards (Yussefi 2006) The supply of organic products has not gone hand in hand with developments on organic regulations until recently In fact the lack of clear organic standards and labeling in several countries has caused trouble for organic producers and consumers Several products labeled as organic’ and ecological’ have been found in Canadian supermarkets yet their producers really have not followed any production standards These incidences were threatening Canada’s organic industry and organic fraud is becoming a growing concern among consumers Consequently organic farmers in Canada have called for the food inspection agency to produce a strict set of standards and an organic seal (MAF 2005) Despite the government’s efforts to keep a transparent market environment New Zealand has not been exempt from the organic labelingand standards debate A survey done by the New Zealand Food Safety Authority in 2004 (NZFSA) found more than 20 of the organic fruit and vegetable sampled contained chemical residues Certification schemes in New Zealand are self regulated and only products that are exported are checked by the NZFSA for compliance (MAF 2005) Today 395 organizations worldwide offer organic certification services Most certification bodies are in Europe (160) followed by Asia (93) and North America (80) The countries with the most certification bodies are the US Japan China and Germany Many of the certification organizations also operate outside of their home country Forty percent of the certification bodies are approved by the EU 32 have ISO 65 accreditation and 28 are accredited under the US National Organic Program (Yussefi and Willer 2007)
    Effects on soil quality
    Organic farming improves soil fertility over time (Clark et al 1998 Petersen et al 1999) In the short term (about 3 years of the transition period) organic farming may have negative effects on crop production however The transition period between conventional and organic farming practices is often marked by a decrease in N availability and in yields due to a shift in biological activity and N sources that are not immediately available for plant use (Petersen et al 1999) Soil biological properties Among the benefits of organic farming is an increase in soil microbial activity and biological processes (Gunapala and Scow 1998 Petersen et al 1999 Scow et al 1994 Werner1997) Axelsen and Elmholt (1998) estimated that a conversion to 100 organic farming in Denmark would increase microbial biomass by 77 the population of springtails by 37 and the density of earthworms by 154 A decrease in disease and parasitic nematodes has also been observed (Scow et al 1994 Matsubara et al 2002) Wander et al (1994) studied three farming systems (1) animalbased (cover crops and animal manure only) (2) legume based (cover crop only) and (3) conventional (N fertilizer) Their results showed that the two organic systems had higher levels of microbial activity and more diverse species than the conventional system Soil physical properties Organic fertility inputs (animal andor green manures) improve soil physical properties by lowering bulk density increasing waterholding capacity and improving infiltration rates (Petersen et al 1999 Tester 1990 Werner 1997 Lee et al 2006 Sadanandan and Hamza 2006) Lower bulk density implies greater pore space and improved aeration creating a more favorable environment for biological activity (Werner 1997) Tester (1990) also found that amending soil with compost significantly decreased bulk density and increased soil water content Soil chemical properties Organic farming increases SOM content (Alvarez et al 1988 Bhat and Sujatha 2006 Clark et al 1998 Goh et al 2001 Petersen et al 1999 Reganold et al 1993) and humic substances (Nardi et al 2002) During the transition years from conventional to organic systems most soils show a slow but steady increase in SOM (Clark et al 1998 Kuo et al 1997) Wander et al (1994) proposed that the quality of SOM may even be more important than the quantity of SOM present in farming systems that use cover crops and other organic inputs and those that do not Clark et al (1998) found that SOM levels in the 030 cm depth had increased in the organic and lowinput treatments by 19 after four years of organic practice Alvarez et al (1988) found a positive correlation between SOM content and available Ca K Mg Na and P Obviously total soil N will increase with organic practices but extract able P and exchangeable K alsooften do (Alvarez et al 1988 Bhat and Sujatha 2006 Clark et al 1998 Petersen et al 1999 Reganold et al 1993) Perhaps because of improved soil quality organic crops often contain more vitamin C and Bgroup vitamins more phenolic compounds and beta carotene than conventional crops (Adam 2001 Rembialkowska 2004 Reganold et al 2001) Sadanandan and Hamza (2006) reported that the levels of piperine and oleoresin in black pepper (Piper nigrum L) were much higher in Indian fields fertilized with poultry or goat manure as compared to those receiving NPK chemical fertilizers
    Development and distribution of organic farming worldwide
    Since the 1990s organic farming has expanded considerably especially in Europe (eg Germany and Scandinavia) In 1996 Austria (the only country which equates sustainable agriculture to organic agriculture) counted over 7 of its agricultural land as being under organic management and Switzerland 6 The Central and Eastern European countries show the same trend in growth although the absolute rates of adoption are considerably lower (FAO 1998) A recent survey has shown that there are more than 31 million ha of land worldwide under organic management by at least 633891 farms (Yussefi and Willer 2007) Certified forest and wild harvest plants would add at least another 197 million ha totaling more than 51 million ha (Yussefi 2006) As of 2006 the countries with the greatest organic areas are Australia (118 million ha) Argentina (31 million ha) and China (23 million ha) (Yussefi and Willer 2007) Table 3 shows detailed information of organic area in
    2006 by country There has been significant growth of organic areas in North America and Europe Each continent has half million ha more over 2004 In most countries organic farming is on the rise In China the organic land area has increased by 375 over that in 2001 (ShiMing and Sauerborn 2006) In Liechtenstein 26 of agricultural land area is managed organically which is the highest percentage of organic area in the world (Table 4) (Yussefi 2006) Organic farming has been practiced in 120 countries of the world (FAO 2002) It is reasonable to assume that uncertified organic farming is practiced in even more countries (Yussefi and Willer 2007) about 50 of those are developing countries (Willer and Yussefi 2000) However the area of organic land is less than 1 of the total agricultural land of the world The current organic area in each continent is presented in Figure 1 (Yussefi and Willer 2007) The proportion of organically to conventionally managed land is highest in Europe Latin America has the greatest total number of organic farms (Table 5) (Yussefi 2006)
    In Europe the share of organic land area is between 14 and 37 In Africa the area percentage under organic management is the lowest in the word (Yussefi and Willer 2003 SOEL 2003 FiBL 2003) Latin America now is one of the regions with the highest growth rate of organic farming (Yussefi and Willer 2003 FAO 2002) This is perhaps because Latin America has a great deal of education and extension activities relating to ecological agriculture (Yussefi and Willer 2003 FAO 2002) Table 6 shows the main land use categories and crop categories under organic agriculture
    More than half of the organic agricultural land for which land use information was available (Table 6) is under permanent pasturesgrassland About one quarter is used for arable cropping (Willer et al 2007)
    Organic agriculture by continent Oceania
    This area includes Australia and New Zealand as well as smaller countries like Fiji Papua New Guinea Tonga and Vanuatu Altogether more than 118 million ha and 2689 farms are under organic management (Yussefi and Willer 2007) Most of this area is pastoral land for low intensity grazing in Australia (Yussefi 2006) Growth in the organic industry in Australia has been strongly influenced
    by overseas demand The key market for export of Australian organic products has changed over the years In the early 2000s it was Europe accounting for over 70 of Australian organic exports Other countries such as Japan the US Singapore and Hong Kong were emerging as promising future export markets for Australian produce Most organic beef was exported to the US In 2006 Australia agreed to adopt organic standards which once in place can then be used by authorities to enforce on the domestic market In New Zealand a National Organic Standard was launched in 2003 underpinning the various certification schemes that already exist Through the launch of the New Zealand Organic Sector Strategy the government does acknowledge the importance of organic farming but it only gives limited support (Yussefi and Willer 2007)
    North America
    In North America almost 22 million ha are managed organically representing approximately a 06 share of the total agricultural area Currently the number of farms is about 12000 North America has reached a growth rate of almost 30 in recent years (Yussefi and Willer 2007) The number of organic farmers is increasing at a rate of about 12 per year in the 1990s (USDA 2000) and may have reached 20 annually between 2002 and 2007 (Willer and Yussefi 2004) The US market has seen more and more organic products being introduced the number of certification agencies
    accredited by USDA has grown and talks are progressing to expedite international trade of organic products Since 1999 Canada has had a voluntary Canada Organic Standard that is not supported by regulations The organic industry continues to devote its energies toward implementation of a mandatory national organic regulation to help expedite trade relations with such major trading partners as the US the EU and Japan (Yussefi and Willer 2007)
    Latin America
    In Latin America many countries have more than 100000 ha of organic land which are expanding fast The total organically managed and certified area is now almost 64 million ha with an additional 6 million ha certified as forest and wild harvested areas (Yussefi 2006) The countries with the highest proportion of organic land are Uruguay Mexico and Argentina Argentina is the country with the largest organic land in the region ranking second in the world and a major part of their 31 million organic hectares are extensive grassland (Yussefi and Willer 2007) In general in the region no governments provide direct subsidies or economic aid for organic production The exception is Brazil where the government recently issued an interministerial Pro Organic Plan officially stimulating organic production research association building marketing and trade (Yussefi 2006) In Bolivia an action plan for the Promotion of the development of ecological production and establishment for a national control system’ was recently launched Costa Rica and some others have official funding for research and teaching Argentina and Chile have had official export agencies helping producers attend international fairs and print product catalogues and in Mexico there is a growing interest from national and state agencies (Yussefi and Willer 2007) In Brazil organic farming started in the 1970s Its annual growth rate was around 10 in 1990s and is approximately 50 during the last three years being higher than the EU and USA where the growth rate is estimated at 20 and 30 per year respectively (Darolt 2006) Central America has a young but fast growing organic agriculture In fact for the past five years total acreage under organic production has increased 15
    annually (Table 7) (The organic standard 2001) In Mexico organic farming started in the late 1980s and keeps growing fast in the past 5 years Mexico has
    the highest number of organic farmers in Latin America and almost all organic produces are destined for the US market (Darolt 2001) Costa Rica is third in number of organic farmers after Mexico and Brazil (Darolt 2001) The major export organic crops are coffee cacao banana sesame pineapple and vegetables (González and Nigh 2005) Organic coffee is of high demand worldwide being produced in Mexico Colombia Brazil Bolivia Nicaragua Guatemala and El Salvador (Darolt 2001)
    Europe
    In the EU organic farming has experienced a fast growth since the end of the 20th century (Lampkin 2001) This is in part a result of the emphasis of the European Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) on environmentally sensitive agricultural systems and their policy implementation (Häring 2003) There are almost 63 million ha under organic management with almost 160000 organic farms This constitutes 39 of the agricultural area (Yussefi and Willer 2007) In Austria and Switzerland more than 10 of the agricultural area is managed organically (Mäder et al 2002 Soil association 2000) However the country with the highest number of farms and the largest organic area is Italy (Yussefi 2006) where organic farming currently represents 794 of the total area farmed (IFOAM 2003) For comparison France has 18 of agricultural land under organic management (MAF 2005) In Denmark organic farming has been subsidized and covered 65 of the agricultural land in 2001 (Yussefi and Willer 2003) The conversion from conventional to organic dairy farming occurred mainly in the mid 1990s (Petersen et al 2006) and further conversion in the next 810 years could reach 15 of the cultivated area (Christensen and Fradsen 2001) The Dutch government intended to have 10 of the agricultural land under organic management by 2010 from the current 21 (MAF 2005 van Diepeningen et al 2006) In Ireland farming is predominantly grassbased so is the organic sector A target of 3 of arable land under organic has been set for 2010 (Duggan 2005) The area of organic and inconversion land in the UK doubled between 1999 and 2000 (Rigby and Cáceres 2001) with more than 500000 ha of organic and inconversion land or 3 of the agricultural area of the country Despite this expansion of the organic sector the UK currently imports 75 of its organic food (Rigby et al 2001)
    Asia
    In Asia the area under organic management was rather small in the past China in 2004 had nearly three million ha which were dedicated to organic pastures but has not been certified (Yussefi 2006) India reported 25 million ha under organic farming with 332 new certifications issued during 2004 (MAF 2005) Officially the total organic area in Asia is almost 29 million ha managed by 130000 farms (Yussefi and Willer 2007) with an addition of 64 million ha being certified as forest and wild harvested areas China India and Russia are among the most significant countries producing organic products in Asia Recently aquaculture particularly organic shrimp farming has become popular particularly in China Indonesia Thailand and Vietnam (Yussefi 2006)

    Africa
    In Africa organic production is rarely certified Nevertheless organic farming is increasing especially in the southern countries More than 1 million ha are now managed and certified organically Additionally 68 million ha are certified as forest and wild harvested areas (Yussefi 2006) An important growth factor in Africa is the demand for organic products by developed countries Most certified organic production in Africa is geared towards export markets mainly the EU (Yussefi and Willer 2007) Another motivation is the maintenance and building of soil fertility on land threatened by degradation and erosion
    Impacts of organic farming
    In many parts of the world agriculture has caused environmental pressure such as land degradation water use and greenhouse gas emissions Some specific impacts of agriculture on the global environment are documented below (Pimentel 1994 Kendal and Pimentel 1994)During the past 40 years almost one third of the world’s cropland has been abandoned because erosion and degradation Agriculture accounts for 80 of deforestation and 40 of the world’s population lives in regions where water resources are over drafted and stressed and where users compete for water Methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from agriculture in the EU amounted to 383mi tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent in the year 2000 which correspond to approximately 10 of the total EU greenhouse gas emissions (Gugele et al 2002) The increase of environmental pressure from agriculture is unlikely to reverse in the near future since the world population continues to increase faster than global food supply and diets continue to shift towards animal products (Goodland 1997 Pimentel 1994 Kendal and Pimentel 1994) A transition to organic farming could be a viable way of reducing energy use and greenhouse gas emissions Synthetic chemicals and fertilizers are significant sources of energy use and the transition to organic agriculture being less reliant on these inputs would alleviate these impacts (Wood et al 2006) According to FAO (1998) organic farming would have long lasting mostly beneficial effects on such important areas as
    * Longterm productivity of the land Protecting soils and enhancing their fertility would ensure productive capacity for future generations Farmers often quote deteriorating soil quality as a major reason for adopting organic management It can therefore be assumed that those farmers who adopted organic management practices found ways to improve the quality of their soil within the new management system or at least stemmed the deterioration Security of land tenure is important to the success of this task If security is not guaranteed there is little incentive for farmers to invest in a method that might only bring them income in the future rather than immediate rewards
    * Food security and stability In organic agriculture a diversity of crops is often grown and many kinds of livestock kept This diversification minimizes the risk of variation in production as different crops react differently to climatic and edaphic variations or have different times of growth (both in the time of the year and in length of the growth period) Consumers' demand for organic food and premium prices provide new export opportunities for farmers of the developing world thus increasing their selfreliance Organic agriculture can contribute to local food security in several waysOrganic farmers do not incur high initial expenses so less money is borrowed Synthetic inputs unaffordable to an increasing number of resourcepoor farmers due to decreased subsidies and the need for foreign currency are not used Organic soil improvement may be the only economically sound system for resource poor smallscale farmers
    * Environmental impact In a study with pesticides and fruit thinners used in apple production Reganold et al (2001) showed that the total environmental impact rating of the conventional system was 62 times that of the organic one Organic farmers forego the use of synthetic fertilizers Most certification programs also restrict the use of mineral fertilizers which can only be used to the extent necessary to supplement organic matter produced on the farm There are environmental advantages to this nonrenewable fossil energy needs and Nleaching is often reduced (Eltun 1995) Instead farmers enhance soil fertility through use of manure (although the kind and its handling have significant effects on N content and poor usage can create leaching problems) crop residues (eg corn stover rice straw) legumes and green manures and other natural fertilizers (eg rock phosphate seaweed guano wood ash) Within the agricultural sector dairy production systems represent the largest source of CH4 and N2O emissions and may therefore have a large potential for greenhouse gas mitigation (Weiske et al 2006) Lal et al (1998) point out that SOM can significantly mitigate the greenhouse effect (eg via carbon sequestration) Disadvantages for not using synthetic chemicals must be considered as well energy needs may escalate if thermal and mechanical weeding or intensive soil tillage is used Many resourcepoor farmers do not have access to livestock manure often an important fertility component Sometimes immature composts are used which may contain pathogens and other contaminants Finally some areas in tropical countries may have such low soil fertility that synthetic inputs are essential Soil protection techniques used in organic agriculture (eg terracing in the humid tropics cover crops) combat soil erosion compaction salinization and degradation of soils especially through the use of crop rotations and organic materials that improve soil fertility and structure (including beneficial microbial influence and soil particle aggregation) Integrating trees and shrubs into the farming system also conserves soil and water and provides a defense against unfavorable weather conditions such as winds droughts and floods Techniques used in organic agriculture also reduce water pollution and help conserve water on the farm
    Although the benefits (both real and perceived) of organic farming and organic food are many potential negative effects should also be noted including the risk of contamination for human consumption (Pretty1995 Rigby and Cáceres 2001) For example nitrate leaching may contaminate ground water used for drinking or organic livestock might be contaminated with diseasecausing microorganisms from manure and by animal parasites (Rosati and Aumaitre 2004)
    * Social impact The social impact of organic farming is considerable as mentioned in the IFOAM's Principal Aims The main benefit according by some organic farmers in developing countries (eg China and India) is that they now have better standards of living Good product prices low unemployment dropped rural emigration and reduced health risks (from chemicals) are the results of farming organic (MAF 2005) In summary the organic food movement apparently had its roots in a philosophy of life beginning perhaps with Rudolf Steiner a notable German thinker in the 1920s One of its common believes is that natural products are good whereas manmade chemicals are not or at least not as good as natural ones This partially explains why organic farming avoids the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides Certainly organic farming has many benefits ranging from reduced environmental pollution to increased soil quality Let us hope that organic farming will lead all farmers and their consumers toward a more productive prosperous sustainable and healthy future
    References
    1 Christensen J S E Frandsen 2001 Economic perspectives for the development of organic farming Report No 124 Danish Institute of Agricultural and Fisheries Economics Copenhagen Denmark
    2 Clark MS WR Horwath C Shennan KM Scow 1998 Changes in soil chemical properties resulting form organic and lowinput farming practices Agron J 90 662671
    3 Darolt M 2006 A evolução da agricultura orgânica no contexto brasileiro httpwwwplanetaorganicocombrbrasilhtm Accessed Dec 2006
    4 Darolt MR 2001 A agricultura orgânica na America Latina httpwwwplanetaorganicocombrtrabdarolttalhtm Accessed Dec 2006
    5 Dexter AR 2004 Soil physical quality Part I Theory effects of soil texture density and organic matter and effects on soot growth Geoderma 120 201214
    6 Doran JW BT Parkin 1994 Defining and assessing soil quality In Doran JW DC Coleman DF Bezdicek BA Stewart (Eds) Defining Soil Quality for a Sustainable Environment Soil Science Society of America Inc Special Publication Number 35 Madison WI USA pp 3–21
    7 Doran JW M Sarrantonio MA Liebig 1996 Soil health and sustainability Advances in Agronomy 56 154


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