毕业文
外文文献原文译文
学生姓名： 学号：
系 ： 电子计算机科学系
专 业： 计算机科学技术
指导教师：
2012 年 X月
Old and New Models for Office Automation
Elliot Cole
The emerging generation of office automation systems combines new and existing software and procedures While managers may be able to select from a broad array of software tools they may also be required to use certain others This article discusses organization design as the context for office automation mature computer based systems as one application of organization design variables and emerging office automation systems as another application of those variables The article concludes that Management Information System models developed for mature systems may be helpful where the use of software application is required for the individual worker diffusion of innovation models recently developed for computing systems may be helpful where the type of software is optional for the individual worker
The emerging generation of office automation systems combines new concepts and components with existing ones While there may be a combination of firsttime applications for some organizational activities there may be replacement applications for others Our ability to understand and plan for office automation depends on the availability and adequacy of our models This article examines some of the assumptions underlying office automation and then evaluates the adequacy of current models applied to the analysis and implementation of both the firsttime and replacement applications The article begins with a discussion of office automation＇s context factors in organization design Next is a discussion of mature computerbased information systems particularly Management Information Systems (MIS) followed by their similarities and different from emerging information systems The final section examines the use of diffusion of innovation models and their relevance to office automation studies within the scope of Information Science
Organization Design
Organization design is concerned with the structure and function of organizations and consequently occupies a central role in office automation activities Such design involves two basic elements the types of positions in organizations and control over task structure Office automation systems assume the presence of both these elements
Types of Personnel
Computers have been assisting humans for nearly 40 years What makes the earlier user communities different from the emerging communities is the level of positions that are affected Now managers are becoming endusers
In the past white collar workers have been classified as professional managerial and clerical based on the horizontal (breadth) and vertical (depth) specialization of their tasks Professional positions have great vertical specialization ie they require great depth of knowledge in a narrow area In contrast management positions require great horizontal specialization ie they require great breadth of knowledge but with narrow depth Managers are considered generalists rather than specialists Clerical positions are narrow in breadth and depth
The first computer users were professionals (scientists) who applied information technology to extend the capabilities of their work teams These valueadded applications to use Landau Bair and Shalom terminology included solving complex mathematical problems Today＇s computer users routinely include a broad spectrum of professionals who use these tools in pure research applied research and professional practice Next clerical personnel became users Computers appeared in functional areas of organizations with large clerical staffs what man calls the first office automation revolution In these areas applications included transaction processing for example payroll inventory and orderentry Automation was introduced principally for what Landau Bair and Shalom call cost displacement applications saving labor costs by substituting capital for labor
Currently the user community is expanding to include management staff Few managers in organizations of any size have been untouched by computer services and systems At a minimum they have received computer printout reports At most they may have used systems through some intermediary In the emerging generation of office automation as Martin has described managers are expected to become handson users of an array of software
An objective of this generation of office automation is to remove certain tasks from managerial and professional positions by reallocation to a combination of clerical positions and information processing hardware and software Open systems models of organizations discussed by Daniel in this issue of Perspectives provides an understanding of these design issues
Control Task Structure
Task structure includes both (1) what work one is to perform and (2) how one is to perform it It is the how which is the primary focus here To the Classical Management of school which was prominent early in this century deciding how work was to be performed was a management responsibility not merely a management prerogative Followers of this school of thought directed their attention primarily to the production activities of industry Responsibility for structuring the tasks for clerical workers is still generally considered to rest with management Many of the tasks of those workers have been described as routine standardized structured and consequently easily rationalized ie separated into a set of simple steps It is this last quality that facilitates automating the function In the Human Relations school of thought development of participatory management allows the workers to have an input in the design of their tasks—even a substantial input—but the responsibility for granting and approving the input has remained with management In effect the manager has standardized the work processes of clerical and production line workers Organizations have several means of assuring that they are able to produce an output which is consistent Among these mechanisms are (1) standardization of process—the procedures which are to be followed
in performing a task (2) standardization of output—specifications which each unit must meet and (3) standardization of skills—instruction on how work is to be performed This standardization extends to the forms that are used the tools applied and the manner in which they are applied
In contrast the manager is given abroad latitude over the processes to perform his or her job The organization of one＇s work has been considered a prerogative of the manager although Stress man has challenged this view as a means of organization＇s better managing its information flow In effect this latitude represents a standardization of the what of a manager＇s work but not of the how the processes which produce this output The flexibility of the manager＇s choice of work processes allows for the development of work habits which to the external observer may seem idiosyncratic The tools used by the manager in drafting memos and reports—whether pencil and paper pen and paper dictation machine or typewriter— are generally a personal choice rather than an organizational mandate This flexibility has long allowed management (and professional staff) to choose to bring work home During media transformations secretarial staff may reformat information prepared by the manager to conform to the organization＇s format should one exist
For professionals what tasks they perform and how the tasks are to be performed are set out in codes of conduct which provide formal and informal guidelines This is a means of external control in standardizing the process of organizational work Professional workers also perform some tasks which are similar to those of managerial staff eg supervising projects and people These tasks may be controlled by the organization according to its standardization of output In summary differences in the control over task structure can be seen in professional managerial and clerical personnel While managerial and clerical tasks have been largely the provinces of their organization—internally controlled—professional tasks involve the professional society＇s standards of acceptability and thus are externally controlled In this respect the organization has relatively less control over the task structure and work processes for professional staff than for managerial and clerical staff Office automation is designed to have an impact on the task structure ie the process by which one performs an activity These differences in task structure control raise the possibility of it being a mediating variable in office automation models differences in task structure control may lead to qualitative differences in office system designs
ComputerBased Information Systems
Office automation includes a range of systems including a variety of software and data The combination may include databases which receive input from many organizational units and functional areas as well as personal databases Some systems are designed to be used by many workers in a mandatory and specified manner as part of the job requirements and as a condition of employment Other systems may be used to mechanize a task at the option of the user the user is also free to perform that task manually
Existing Systems with Required Use
Management Information Systems (MIS) are a principal class of information system for modern organizations MIS collects data for a database manipulates it and produces reports to a broad spectrum of managers concerned with decision making and accountability Many data entry tasks are small components of larger MIS with global databases spanning organization units and being continually updated In order for the system to process information properly data entry personnel must use the system in a prescribed manner If they do not the accuracy and validity of the receiving database may be compromised There is no room for individual creativity or innovation on the part of individuals providing input to the system＇s database Transaction processing stuff use software according to a standard manual which applies to all workers with similar responsibilities Systems can be sabotaged by personnel in the data input chain who cannot or will not provide complete and accurate data for the database
MIS have a number of characteristics relevant to emerging office systems First MIS are integrated across organization functions and levels of responsibility Individuals cannot unilaterally change system procedures without compromising the system Second MIS automate some organizational communication and information flows through collection and manipulation of input data Third MIS are planned and designed to serve stated organizational functions and objectives Fourth workers particularly those providing input data must use the system and use it in a prescribed manner
Other examples of mandatory systems involve personal databases Word processing systems are designed to be used by secretaries and word processing operators to prepare documents which are requested by others eg a manager or professional Document characteristics—such as length footnotes permanence—and their contents—such as vocabulary and topic—may vary across organization subunits Secretaries use software for tasks specified by others Again use of this information technology is not voluntary to the worker but is required for the job and its use is defined in a standardized manner without modification by the individual user
Existing Systems with Optional Use
Managers enjoy some leeway in how they use MIS output notwithstanding the intended benefits built into the system design MIS have reportgenerating modules which prepare standardized reports for the anticipated needs of each manager While these systems specify mandatory modes for the entry of data there are no enforceable requirements for use of systemgenerated output In fact there is a large literature on the failure of some systems to provide managers with information that is necessary for job performance or even useful Specify reports may not be timely accurate or necessary Martin and system design stages are more frequent and more timeconsuming than errors in the coding stage These shortcomings have been an impetus for the development of usercontrolled analytic tools and data management systems
The distinction between mandatory and optional use of systems is important because it relates to different models used for the design and implementation of each of these systems Mandatory systems of office automation bear a resemblance to MIS (particularly data input aspects) an area to which we may turn for models (see Mick for a description of some of these models) In contrast optional use or nonuse of systems may be seen as the diffusion of innovation which is discussed later in the article
新旧办公动化模式
埃利奥特·科尔
新代办公动化系统结合新现软件程序时理够浩烟海软件工具中做出选择需某软件等等篇文章讨办公动化组织设计中应：成熟计算机系统作组织设计应新兴办公动化系统作种应文章出结理信息系统模式发展成成熟系统应软件需单工产生帮助创新模式计算机系统开发特体劳动者选择需类型软件提供帮助
新代办公动化系统结合现新概念组件然组合首次应代组合应办公动化取决理解力计划力文探索办公动化基假设然根前充足模型评估分析第次新产品代应旧产品文章开始讨办公动化相关设计素接讨成熟计算机信息系统特理信息系统（MIS）次讨信息系统新兴系统相似处差异文章探讨创新模式相关扩散信息范围办公动化研究科学
组织设计
组织设计结构功息息相关占办公动化活动核心作样设计涉两基素类组织中职位控制务结构办公动化系统假定两种元素存
类型
电脑已协助类40年职位级早期户群体新兴集团现理已成终端户
列专业理基广度深度专业化白领务专业技术职务垂直专业化说狭窄区域需巨知识深度相理岗位求极专业化水说需宽广知识面需太深度广度理认通专家文基狭窄广度深度创作
第台计算机户应信息技术扩展工作团队力专家（科学家）增值应朗·拜尔·西格曼术语包括解决复杂数学问题天电脑户常知识广泛专业士工具进行专业研究应研究专业实践步教职员成户电脑出现量文职工作员专业组织领域齐斯曼说第次办公动化革命领域应包括：例交易处理工资库存订单输入动化学者朗道拜尔西格曼称成位移应劳动力成节省代劳动资
目前办公动化包括理员户群体正扩部分组织中理已接触电信设备制造商计算机服务系统少已收电脑印报告许已通中介机构系统正马丁述新代办公动化理已预期样成首软件阵列户
代办公动化目标代测试某通重新分配文职岗位相结合务理专业位置进行信息处理硬件软件丹尼尔组织讨开放式系统模型提供解设计问题思路
控制务结构
务结构包括（1）执行什工作（2）执行里做成焦点世纪初出现古典理学校强调决定进行工作理理责仅仅理特权学校追者认导注意力生产活动行业构建文职务回应然普遍理责松懈工务普通规范层次分明容易合理化完成组简单步骤利动化功保证类关系学参理思想发展工设计中输入务甚量投入责授予批准输入直理效化标准化文书生产线工工作流程种标准化延伸形式工具应延伸应方式
相理进程执行中工作赋予广泛权利组织中理工作直认种特权斯特拉斯曼然已质疑种观点组织手段更理信息流实际范围代表标准化：什理工作进程产生输出理工作流程选择灵活性允许工作惯发展然外部员说许奇特理起草备忘录报告工具否笔纸听写机字机般选择组织务种灵活性长期允许理员（专业工作员）选择回家工作媒体转换中文秘员重新准备符合该组织格式信息应该存
专业士执行什务执行务行守提供正式非正式指导方针种规范程组织工作外部控制手段专业工作者执行类似理工作务例监督项目工组织根务控制输出标准化总专业理文书员出超控制务结构差异然理文书直工作组织部控制专业务涉专业协会接受标准进行外部控制方面该组织理文职员相专业工作员完成控制务结构工作流程务结构办公动化设计影响执行程中活动务结构控制差异提高性办公室中介变量动化模型控制务结构设计差异办公系统中会导致质区
基计算机信息系统
办公动化系统包括范围涵盖种软件数该组合包括许组织数库单位职领域数库系统设计工作求业条件涉工中部分强制固定方式执行系统进行机械化执行户选项户通手动执行务
现系统求
理信息系统（MIS）流现代组织信息系统MIS收集系统数库中数操数关理员产生具决策问责制广谱报告全球数库跨越组织单位断更新相许数录入务巨MIS系统中部分处理信息系统正确数录入员必须订明方式该系统果样做精度接收数库效性会受影响系统数库输入部分没提供创造力创新余事务处理工作员软件根工追究相责适标准手册输入数链工作员准确数库更新数时数库破坏
MIS系统新兴办公系统相关特性首先体现MIS系统集成组织职责水第单方面改变系统程序损害系统第二理信息系统实现动化通信信息流输入收集处理产生准确数第三理信息系统规划设计服务确定组织职目标第四工尤提供输入数工规定方式该系统
强制系统例子包括数库文字处理系统设计成秘书文字处理等设计运营商准备例理专家求文件文件特点长度脚注持久相关词汇题等容组织差异秘书软件务指定时种信息技术工愿工作需定义需修改户标准化方式
现系统
理员享受MIS系统输出便捷系统设计达预期利益 MIS系统具报告生成模块功模块准备预期标准化报告满足理需求然系统指定强制性数录入方式没强制执行系统生成输出求事实理提供系统失败必信息型文献甚益预先设定报告时准确必马丁指出系统设计阶段户面软件错误编码阶段错误更频繁更耗时缺点直发展动力户控制分析工具数理系统
强制性选择性间区非常重涉设计实施系统模式强制性办公动化系统承担相似MIS（特数输入方面）区域模型知相者未系统视创新扩散文会继续讨
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外文文献原文译文
学生姓名： 学号：
系 ： 电子计算机科学系
专 业： 计算机科学技术
指导教师：
2012 年 X月
Old and New Models for Office Automation
Elliot Cole
The emerging generation of office automation systems combines new and existing software and procedures While managers may be able to select from a broad array of software tools they may also be required to use certain others This article discusses organization design as the context for office automation mature computer based systems as one application of organization design variables and emerging office automation systems as another application of those variables The article concludes that Management Information System models developed for mature systems may be helpful where the use of software application is required for the individual worker diffusion of innovation models recently developed for computing systems may be helpful where the type of software is optional for the individual worker
The emerging generation of office automation systems combines new concepts and components with existing ones While there may be a combination of firsttime applications for some organizational activities there may be replacement applications for others Our ability to understand and plan for office automation depends on the availability and adequacy of our models This article examines some of the assumptions underlying office automation and then evaluates the adequacy of current models applied to the analysis and implementation of both the firsttime and replacement applications The article begins with a discussion of office automation＇s context factors in organization design Next is a discussion of mature computerbased information systems particularly Management Information Systems (MIS) followed by their similarities and different from emerging information systems The final section examines the use of diffusion of innovation models and their relevance to office automation studies within the scope of Information Science
Organization Design
Organization design is concerned with the structure and function of organizations and consequently occupies a central role in office automation activities Such design involves two basic elements the types of positions in organizations and control over task structure Office automation systems assume the presence of both these elements
Types of Personnel
Computers have been assisting humans for nearly 40 years What makes the earlier user communities different from the emerging communities is the level of positions that are affected Now managers are becoming endusers
In the past white collar workers have been classified as professional managerial and clerical based on the horizontal (breadth) and vertical (depth) specialization of their tasks Professional positions have great vertical specialization ie they require great depth of knowledge in a narrow area In contrast management positions require great horizontal specialization ie they require great breadth of knowledge but with narrow depth Managers are considered generalists rather than specialists Clerical positions are narrow in breadth and depth
The first computer users were professionals (scientists) who applied information technology to extend the capabilities of their work teams These valueadded applications to use Landau Bair and Shalom terminology included solving complex mathematical problems Today＇s computer users routinely include a broad spectrum of professionals who use these tools in pure research applied research and professional practice Next clerical personnel became users Computers appeared in functional areas of organizations with large clerical staffs what man calls the first office automation revolution In these areas applications included transaction processing for example payroll inventory and orderentry Automation was introduced principally for what Landau Bair and Shalom call cost displacement applications saving labor costs by substituting capital for labor
Currently the user community is expanding to include management staff Few managers in organizations of any size have been untouched by computer services and systems At a minimum they have received computer printout reports At most they may have used systems through some intermediary In the emerging generation of office automation as Martin has described managers are expected to become handson users of an array of software
An objective of this generation of office automation is to remove certain tasks from managerial and professional positions by reallocation to a combination of clerical positions and information processing hardware and software Open systems models of organizations discussed by Daniel in this issue of Perspectives provides an understanding of these design issues
Control Task Structure
Task structure includes both (1) what work one is to perform and (2) how one is to perform it It is the how which is the primary focus here To the Classical Management of school which was prominent early in this century deciding how work was to be performed was a management responsibility not merely a management prerogative Followers of this school of thought directed their attention primarily to the production activities of industry Responsibility for structuring the tasks for clerical workers is still generally considered to rest with management Many of the tasks of those workers have been described as routine standardized structured and consequently easily rationalized ie separated into a set of simple steps It is this last quality that facilitates automating the function In the Human Relations school of thought development of participatory management allows the workers to have an input in the design of their tasks—even a substantial input—but the responsibility for granting and approving the input has remained with management In effect the manager has standardized the work processes of clerical and production line workers Organizations have several means of assuring that they are able to produce an output which is consistent Among these mechanisms are (1) standardization of process—the procedures which are to be followed
in performing a task (2) standardization of output—specifications which each unit must meet and (3) standardization of skills—instruction on how work is to be performed This standardization extends to the forms that are used the tools applied and the manner in which they are applied
In contrast the manager is given abroad latitude over the processes to perform his or her job The organization of one＇s work has been considered a prerogative of the manager although Stress man has challenged this view as a means of organization＇s better managing its information flow In effect this latitude represents a standardization of the what of a manager＇s work but not of the how the processes which produce this output The flexibility of the manager＇s choice of work processes allows for the development of work habits which to the external observer may seem idiosyncratic The tools used by the manager in drafting memos and reports—whether pencil and paper pen and paper dictation machine or typewriter— are generally a personal choice rather than an organizational mandate This flexibility has long allowed management (and professional staff) to choose to bring work home During media transformations secretarial staff may reformat information prepared by the manager to conform to the organization＇s format should one exist
For professionals what tasks they perform and how the tasks are to be performed are set out in codes of conduct which provide formal and informal guidelines This is a means of external control in standardizing the process of organizational work Professional workers also perform some tasks which are similar to those of managerial staff eg supervising projects and people These tasks may be controlled by the organization according to its standardization of output In summary differences in the control over task structure can be seen in professional managerial and clerical personnel While managerial and clerical tasks have been largely the provinces of their organization—internally controlled—professional tasks involve the professional society＇s standards of acceptability and thus are externally controlled In this respect the organization has relatively less control over the task structure and work processes for professional staff than for managerial and clerical staff Office automation is designed to have an impact on the task structure ie the process by which one performs an activity These differences in task structure control raise the possibility of it being a mediating variable in office automation models differences in task structure control may lead to qualitative differences in office system designs
ComputerBased Information Systems
Office automation includes a range of systems including a variety of software and data The combination may include databases which receive input from many organizational units and functional areas as well as personal databases Some systems are designed to be used by many workers in a mandatory and specified manner as part of the job requirements and as a condition of employment Other systems may be used to mechanize a task at the option of the user the user is also free to perform that task manually
Existing Systems with Required Use
Management Information Systems (MIS) are a principal class of information system for modern organizations MIS collects data for a database manipulates it and produces reports to a broad spectrum of managers concerned with decision making and accountability Many data entry tasks are small components of larger MIS with global databases spanning organization units and being continually updated In order for the system to process information properly data entry personnel must use the system in a prescribed manner If they do not the accuracy and validity of the receiving database may be compromised There is no room for individual creativity or innovation on the part of individuals providing input to the system＇s database Transaction processing stuff use software according to a standard manual which applies to all workers with similar responsibilities Systems can be sabotaged by personnel in the data input chain who cannot or will not provide complete and accurate data for the database
MIS have a number of characteristics relevant to emerging office systems First MIS are integrated across organization functions and levels of responsibility Individuals cannot unilaterally change system procedures without compromising the system Second MIS automate some organizational communication and information flows through collection and manipulation of input data Third MIS are planned and designed to serve stated organizational functions and objectives Fourth workers particularly those providing input data must use the system and use it in a prescribed manner
Other examples of mandatory systems involve personal databases Word processing systems are designed to be used by secretaries and word processing operators to prepare documents which are requested by others eg a manager or professional Document characteristics—such as length footnotes permanence—and their contents—such as vocabulary and topic—may vary across organization subunits Secretaries use software for tasks specified by others Again use of this information technology is not voluntary to the worker but is required for the job and its use is defined in a standardized manner without modification by the individual user
Existing Systems with Optional Use
Managers enjoy some leeway in how they use MIS output notwithstanding the intended benefits built into the system design MIS have reportgenerating modules which prepare standardized reports for the anticipated needs of each manager While these systems specify mandatory modes for the entry of data there are no enforceable requirements for use of systemgenerated output In fact there is a large literature on the failure of some systems to provide managers with information that is necessary for job performance or even useful Specify reports may not be timely accurate or necessary Martin and system design stages are more frequent and more timeconsuming than errors in the coding stage These shortcomings have been an impetus for the development of usercontrolled analytic tools and data management systems
The distinction between mandatory and optional use of systems is important because it relates to different models used for the design and implementation of each of these systems Mandatory systems of office automation bear a resemblance to MIS (particularly data input aspects) an area to which we may turn for models (see Mick for a description of some of these models) In contrast optional use or nonuse of systems may be seen as the diffusion of innovation which is discussed later in the article
新旧办公动化模式
埃利奥特·科尔
新代办公动化系统结合新现软件程序时理够浩烟海软件工具中做出选择需某软件等等篇文章讨办公动化组织设计中应：成熟计算机系统作组织设计应新兴办公动化系统作种应文章出结理信息系统模式发展成成熟系统应软件需单工产生帮助创新模式计算机系统开发特体劳动者选择需类型软件提供帮助
新代办公动化系统结合现新概念组件然组合首次应代组合应办公动化取决理解力计划力文探索办公动化基假设然根前充足模型评估分析第次新产品代应旧产品文章开始讨办公动化相关设计素接讨成熟计算机信息系统特理信息系统（MIS）次讨信息系统新兴系统相似处差异文章探讨创新模式相关扩散信息范围办公动化研究科学
组织设计
组织设计结构功息息相关占办公动化活动核心作样设计涉两基素类组织中职位控制务结构办公动化系统假定两种元素存
类型
电脑已协助类40年职位级早期户群体新兴集团现理已成终端户
列专业理基广度深度专业化白领务专业技术职务垂直专业化说狭窄区域需巨知识深度相理岗位求极专业化水说需宽广知识面需太深度广度理认通专家文基狭窄广度深度创作
第台计算机户应信息技术扩展工作团队力专家（科学家）增值应朗·拜尔·西格曼术语包括解决复杂数学问题天电脑户常知识广泛专业士工具进行专业研究应研究专业实践步教职员成户电脑出现量文职工作员专业组织领域齐斯曼说第次办公动化革命领域应包括：例交易处理工资库存订单输入动化学者朗道拜尔西格曼称成位移应劳动力成节省代劳动资
目前办公动化包括理员户群体正扩部分组织中理已接触电信设备制造商计算机服务系统少已收电脑印报告许已通中介机构系统正马丁述新代办公动化理已预期样成首软件阵列户
代办公动化目标代测试某通重新分配文职岗位相结合务理专业位置进行信息处理硬件软件丹尼尔组织讨开放式系统模型提供解设计问题思路
控制务结构
务结构包括（1）执行什工作（2）执行里做成焦点世纪初出现古典理学校强调决定进行工作理理责仅仅理特权学校追者认导注意力生产活动行业构建文职务回应然普遍理责松懈工务普通规范层次分明容易合理化完成组简单步骤利动化功保证类关系学参理思想发展工设计中输入务甚量投入责授予批准输入直理效化标准化文书生产线工工作流程种标准化延伸形式工具应延伸应方式
相理进程执行中工作赋予广泛权利组织中理工作直认种特权斯特拉斯曼然已质疑种观点组织手段更理信息流实际范围代表标准化：什理工作进程产生输出理工作流程选择灵活性允许工作惯发展然外部员说许奇特理起草备忘录报告工具否笔纸听写机字机般选择组织务种灵活性长期允许理员（专业工作员）选择回家工作媒体转换中文秘员重新准备符合该组织格式信息应该存
专业士执行什务执行务行守提供正式非正式指导方针种规范程组织工作外部控制手段专业工作者执行类似理工作务例监督项目工组织根务控制输出标准化总专业理文书员出超控制务结构差异然理文书直工作组织部控制专业务涉专业协会接受标准进行外部控制方面该组织理文职员相专业工作员完成控制务结构工作流程务结构办公动化设计影响执行程中活动务结构控制差异提高性办公室中介变量动化模型控制务结构设计差异办公系统中会导致质区
基计算机信息系统
办公动化系统包括范围涵盖种软件数该组合包括许组织数库单位职领域数库系统设计工作求业条件涉工中部分强制固定方式执行系统进行机械化执行户选项户通手动执行务
现系统求
理信息系统（MIS）流现代组织信息系统MIS收集系统数库中数操数关理员产生具决策问责制广谱报告全球数库跨越组织单位断更新相许数录入务巨MIS系统中部分处理信息系统正确数录入员必须订明方式该系统果样做精度接收数库效性会受影响系统数库输入部分没提供创造力创新余事务处理工作员软件根工追究相责适标准手册输入数链工作员准确数库更新数时数库破坏
MIS系统新兴办公系统相关特性首先体现MIS系统集成组织职责水第单方面改变系统程序损害系统第二理信息系统实现动化通信信息流输入收集处理产生准确数第三理信息系统规划设计服务确定组织职目标第四工尤提供输入数工规定方式该系统
强制系统例子包括数库文字处理系统设计成秘书文字处理等设计运营商准备例理专家求文件文件特点长度脚注持久相关词汇题等容组织差异秘书软件务指定时种信息技术工愿工作需定义需修改户标准化方式
现系统
理员享受MIS系统输出便捷系统设计达预期利益 MIS系统具报告生成模块功模块准备预期标准化报告满足理需求然系统指定强制性数录入方式没强制执行系统生成输出求事实理提供系统失败必信息型文献甚益预先设定报告时准确必马丁指出系统设计阶段户面软件错误编码阶段错误更频繁更耗时缺点直发展动力户控制分析工具数理系统
强制性选择性间区非常重涉设计实施系统模式强制性办公动化系统承担相似MIS（特数输入方面）区域模型知相者未系统视创新扩散文会继续讨
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