自考英语语言学概论大纲考核章节精华

考英语语言学概纲考核章节精华
第章 语言（Language）
●章考点
1 语言定义（What is language）
2 类语言识性特征（What are the design features of human language）
3 语言功（The functions of language）
●课文理解重点容分析：
章介绍语言基知识包括语言定义语言识性特征语言功
1 语言定义
语言类交际意性发音符号系统该定义五点系统意性发音声系统类交际
2 语言识性特征
语言识性特征指类语言区动物交流系统特点包括：
1）产性：产性称创造性语言创造新意义立未接触理解创造性语言二重性递性
2）离散性：
3）受时空限制属性位移性：类语言者表达说话时(时间处)存物体事件观点特性赋予概括抽象力
4）意性：意性语言核心特征指符号形式声音意义间没理逻辑关系意性程度
5）文化传递性：语言遗传通教学接触文化代代传递
6）结构二重性：二重性指底层限语音结构层词句语篇结构组成成分层身组合规语言拥强产性
7）互换性：互换性指信息发出者信息接收者
3 语言功
韩礼德表述幼语言七功：
1）工具功：说话语言做事情
2）调节功：语言控制事件
3）表现功：语言传达知识汇报事件进行陈述说明解释关系传递信息等
4）互动功：语言周围进行交际
5）指性功：语言表达情感展示性
6）启发功：语言获知识解世界语言学语言问答争辩验证假设推导结新奇发现
7）想象功：语言创造想象系统文学作品哲学领域里空想白日做梦发呆遐想
成语言三元功：际功概念功语篇功
国著名学者胡壮麟等语言学教程中词语表达语言七功：
1）信息功：认语言功
2）际功：语言重社会功通建立维持社会中身份位
3）施功：改变物社会位语言非常正式时甚成种礼节
4）感情功：改变听者感情成表达功表达功包括言语
5）客气／寒暄功：指助说明维持际关系表达
6）娱乐功：婴咿呀学语歌者吟唱歌等
7）元语言功：指语言讨语言身
第二章 语言学（Linguisitics）
l 章考点
1 语言学定义语言学研究范畴（The definition of linguistics and scope of linguistics）
2 语言学科学性（Linguistics the science）
3 语言学分支学科（Subbranches of linguistics）
4 语言学中组重区性概念（Some distinctions in linguistics）
l 课文理解重点容分析：
1． 语言学定义
语言学语言科学研究研究社会中作交流系统种类语言基原理语言学家务学样某特定语言考察研究语言构造语言产生出产生出样方言差异阶级差异语言时期时期变化发展童母语应该学外语等等
11莱昂斯区分：
普通语言学描写语言学（General linguistics and descriptive linguistics）
时语言学历时语言学（Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics）
理语言学应语言学（Theoretical and applied linguistics）
微观语言学宏观语言学（Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics）
12 王钢区分：语言学分五范畴：
具体语言学普通语言学（Specific linguistics and general linguistics）
描写语言学历史语言学（Descriptive linguistics and historical linguistics）
历史较语言学语言学（Comparative historical linguistics and contrastive linguistics）
微观语言学宏观语言学（Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics）
理语言学应语言学（Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics）
（1）具体语言学某具体语言（汉语）研究象英语研究象英语语言学普通语言学探索类语言普遍性质般规律建立总结概括具体语言学研究成果基础
（2）描写语言学称时语言学历史语言学称历时语言学
（3）历史较语言学利语言学中专门历史较法研究具源谓亲属语言历史发展语言学两种语言（亲属）通较研究结构异
（4）微观语言学语言系统部方面进行研究语音学细粉发声语音学听觉语音学声学语音学三孙分支宏观语言学位语言学外围包括语言学科学相结合合成门边缘学科
（5）理语言学研究语言般理普通语言学雅称应语言学广义狭义分广义应语言学包括语言应解决交际问题诸方面狭义应语言学专指外语教学（教学法）研究
2． 语言学科学性
般说语言学研究科学程序包括步骤（文秋芳1995：9）：
1）收集语言数
2）根数建构初步规
3）通更数验证初步规作出必修正
4）提出够解释说明关数规理
类似梅德明（2003：2）语言研究科学步骤总结：
1）观察语言事实
2）概括语言事实
3）提出假设解释语言事实
4）通更观察检验假设
5）建构某语言理
语言学成门科学列列素：穷性致性简洁性客观性语言学关语言科学然应该建立语言素材资料系统研究研究宗旨发现语言质特征挖掘语言潜系统语言学家怀着某种语言假设事研究研究中断检验证明推翻假设分析具科学性语言学家工作遵循述四条准穷性指语言学家应收集分析资料数予充分解释丢三落四致性指分析程中前观点致少前矛盾简洁性指字进行复杂分析证明中应力求语言简洁拖泥带水冗长乏味客观性指实事求二二观臆断妄加取舍乱结
3． 语言学分支学科
语言学分支学科：语音学音位学形态学句法学语义学语学等等
4 语言学中重区
(1)时历时（synchronic and diachronic）研究
时研究称描写语言学研究语言某时期相稳定系统历时研究称历史语言学研究语言时期发展演变谚语研究中英语发展史英语词源学等
(2)语言言语(langue and parole)
语言(langue)词指社会成员享抽象语言体系言语(parole)指语言实际运语言实现语言抽象谚语具体定时空中言语事件语言社会体讲东西言语总然言语事件中机成分语言相稳定系统言语受情景等素支配索绪尔言语堆杂乱章言语现象素材适系统研究语言学家务应该言语实例中抽取提炼出语言寻找发现支配着言语实例语言规成语言学研究象
（3）语言力语言运(competence and performance)
根Chomsky解释语言力（competence）理想语言者母语种种规解掌握语言运（performance）知识实际话语行中实现 语言力说出听懂穷句子够识语病歧义语言力相稳定语言运常常受制心理社会素说话者语言运非总语言力相等时间较差距
（4）口头语书面语(speech and writing)
关语言（口头语言言语语言语音形式）第性文字第二性条语言原语言学界达成识历史角度语言产生时间文字产生时间早少母语程中例外先学说学写次文字符号种方式种方式代表记录口头语言 语音口头语言形式相反文字知识书面符号代码已重性然低估首先越广阔空间相互传递信件次信息跨漫长时间天读孔孟道读史记次口信常失真歪曲导致间接口头交际曲解误解书信书面信息更显优势文字材料允许反复重视阅读百读改意数现代语言学家重视口头语言形式点世纪前语法学家文字材料作唯研究象做法相
（5）语言行潜势实际语言行(linguistic behaviour potential and actual linguistic behaviour)
语言行潜势实际语言行英国伦敦学派语言学家系统功语法创始Halliday20世纪60年代提出张功角度研究语言发现生活里许事情做样许话说说许听话题次语言行供选择语言项目总库中项总体中句话潜语言行（潜势）旦说出成实际语言行
（6）横组合聚合关系（syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation）
横组合关系种线性关系指单位序列中单位间关系现成分间关系处组合关系词必须满足句法语义条件聚合关系种垂直关系选择关系指结构某特殊位置彼相互换成分间关系者现成分非现成分间关系聚合关系中词语受句法限制语义素考虑范围处聚合关系中词语句法特征语义互相换组合聚合关系坐标两根轴起决定语言符号身份组合关系水关系链状关系聚合关系联想关系换关系
（7）言语交际非言语交际(verbal communication and nonverbal communication)
言语交际通语言手段进行交际非言语交际通手势眼神微笑面部表情等非言语手段进行交际文化非言语交际手段相果错会导致分歧误解交际失败时甚惹怒方非言语交际行交际手段容忽略
(8)描写式规范式(descriptive and prescriptive)现代语言学传统语法区
描述性研究指语言研究者描述分析语言事实规定性研究语言研究者谓正确制定种种规约换言语言学者果告诉语言中情况言语现象描述研究便描述性语言学方法果职守划脚说该做规定研究采取规定性语言学方法20世纪前语言研究（传统语法）半属规定学派现代语言学研究描述派















Chapter Three Phonetics
l 章考点
1 语音学定义分支（Phonetics and its subbranches）
2 发音器官（Speech organs）
3 辅音分类（Classifications of consonants）
4 元音分类（Classifications of vowels）
5 协发音(Coarticulation)
6 国际音标（International Phonetic Alphabet）
7 语音特征（Phonetic features）
l 课文理解重点容分析
1． 语音学
语音学语言声音媒介研究涉类语言中全部语音语音学三相互联系角度研究语音根语音产生感知程语音学分三领域：发音语音学听觉语音学声学语音学关注发音语音学
首先说话者角度研究语音说话者样发音器官发音次听者角度研究语音声音样听者辨识通研究声波研究语音样传播声波语音空气中传播物理手段
2． 发音器官
发音器官指体参制造言语部分包括肺气喉鼻口发音器官位三区域声腔：咽腔咽喉口腔嘴鼻腔鼻子肺部呼出气流声腔方式发生变化达部位前喉部变化变化气流运动种种干扰具体说变化种种方式完全阻断气流进行部分干扰
3． 辅音分类
英语辅音四方面进行分类：
l 软腭位置：口腔辅音鼻腔辅音
l 声带振动否：清辅音浊辅音
l 发音部位：双唇音唇齿音舌齿音齿龈音齿龈音齿龈硬腭音硬腭音软腭音声门音
l 发音方式：爆破音鼻腔音摩擦音破擦音流音滑音
详见表：

发音方式
闭止音
摩擦音
破擦音
流音
滑音
爆破音
鼻腔音
VL
VD
VL
VD
VL
VD
VL
VD
VL
VD
VL
VD
发音部位
双唇音
p
b

m







w
唇齿音



m
f
v






舌齿音
t


n
W
T






齿龈音
t
d

n
s
z



l


齿龈音






tr
dr

r


齿龈硬腭音s




F
V
tF
dV




硬腭音
c
g









j
软腭音
k
g

N








声门音




h








4． 元音分类
英语元音六方面进行分类：
l 软腭状态：口腔元音鼻腔元音鼻腔元音~表示
l 舌位：前元音央元音元音高元音中元音低元音
舌位详见图：
前 央
高
● i u ●
● i u ●
E() C
中 e● ● ●
Z ●
Q ● ● C
A ● ●B
低
高元音：[i i u u]
中元音：[e E E C]
低元音：[Z æ Q C B]
前元音：[i i e Z Q æ]
央元音：[E E]
元音：[u u C C B]
l 开口度：开元音半开元音半闭元音闭元音
闭元音：[i][i][u]and [u]
半闭元音：[e] and [E]
半开元音：[E] and [C]
开元音：[æ] [Q][C] and [B]
l 唇形：圆唇元音圆唇元音
[u] [u] [C] and [C]圆唇元音余圆唇元音
l 长短：长元音短元音
长元音表示：[u]
l 咽部肌肉紧张状态：紧元音松元音
长元音短元音[e]紧元音余松元音
单元音（monophthongspure vowelssimple vowels）外英语中8双元音（diphthongs）中3集中双元音（centering diphthongs）（[iE ZE uE]）5合口双元音（closing diphthongs）（[ei] [ai] [Ci] [Eu] and [au]）
5 协发音（Coarticulation）
协发音：指实际话语程中语音持续受邻音影响发生时重合发音程分 逆化协发音重复性协发音
6 国际音标（International Phonetic Alphabet）
国际音标（简称IPA）1888年国际语音协会时偶中音标表编造出标音系统种符号种语言外附加符号变音符（Diacritics）表示音位变体音长重音音调差异
7 语音特征（Phonetic features）
传统描述语音方法外通语音特征区分描述辅音者元音区分语音时常+–值表示描述辅音常语音特征表示：

p
b
m
w
f
v
P
T
t
d
s
z
n
l
tr
dr
r
辅音
+
+
+
–
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
元音
+
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
–
–
+
鼻音
–
–
+
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
–
–
–
–
浊音
–
+
+
+
–
+
–
+
–
+
–
+
+
+
–
+
+
连续音
–
–
–
+
+
+
+
+
–
–
+
+
–
+
–
–
+
前部音
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
–
–
–
舌面音
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
送气音
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–


F
V
tF
dV
c

j
k
g
N

h
ph
th
kh
ch
辅音
+
+
+
+
+
+
–
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
元音
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
鼻音
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
–
–
–
–
–
–
浊音
–
+
–
+
–
+
+
–
+
+
–
–
–
–
–
–
连续音
+
+
–
–
–
–
+
–
–
–
–
+
–
–
–
–
前部音
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
+
–
–
舌面音
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
–
+
送气音
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
+
+
+
元音语音特征：

i
i
e
Z
A
Q
E
E
u
u
C
C
B
高
+
+
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
+
–
–
–
低
–
–
–
+
+
+
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
前
+
+
+
+
+
+
–
–
–
–
–
–
–

–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
+
+
+
+
圆唇
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
+
+
+
–
紧
+
–
+
–
–
–
+
–
+
–
+
–
+

第四章 音位学(Phonology)
l 章考点
1 语音学音位学区分（Difference between phonetics and phonology）
2 音位音子音位变体（Phonemes phones and allophones）
3 立体（Minimal pairs）
4 三种类型分布（Three types of distribution）
5 识音位四原（ Principles of identifying phonemes）
6 区性特征（Distinctive features）
7 音位规（Rules of phonology）
8 超切分特征（Suprasegmental features）
9 严式宽式标音（Narrow and broad transcriptions）
l 课文理解重点容分析
1．语音学音位学定义二者区
语音学音系学语音研究英语名称包含词根phono该词根意思语音然两者语音研究研究方法重心语音学具普遍性特征关心类语言中全部语音语音发出彼具样语音特征分类等等方面说音系学关心种特定语言语音系统旨揭示种语言语音形成模式语言交际中表达意思两者语言研究中相互区相互关联分支
通两角度审视英语中出现语音说明语音学特征音系学特征传统差审视语音学角度明显两语音音系学角度基实体两变体两英语单词leappeel中包含发音样第单词中包含做清晰音[1]第二单词中包含模糊音[ ]发清晰音[1]时舌头升起部分相接腭前部发模糊音[ ]时舌头升起接腭部分相语音学家已辨识英语中两区相[l]音：
语音两变体起两名字严式音标中符号表示
果音系学角度两语音会说基相发音交际中区单词意义方面起着样作果外语学者误peel中模糊音电脑法显示模糊音标记请编辑修订
[ ]发成清晰音[1]英语母语会误解理解表达意思觉发音点怪音系学家发现[1]音意出现英语单词中分布遵循精细互补模式：清晰音[1]通常出现元音前音系学研究种特定语言语音系统出关种语言语音体系结推广种语言中
2．音子音位音位变体
（1）音子（phone）
音子语音单位片段交际程中发出听语音皆音子（素组合）听pit tip spit 三词时候听音子中[p]素发音方式：送气送气爆破力强弱元音前面面长元音短元音前面面前面没[s]处重读轻读音节等等[p]果标明区分必引严式标音法种种变音符[p]右角加[h]应该注意音子辨义功许没
（2）音位（phoneme）
音位音位学单位具辨义价值作抽象语言单位指具体某音子语音定语音情景中环境中定音子表现实现例[p]音位[pit][tip][spit] 三词中三音子代表：第[p]送气爆破力强第二[p]送气爆破力微弱第三[p]送气者说送气足
（3）音位变体(allophone)
代表音位音子称音位变体称音位成员（语音定差异差异词成词产生出新语义程度）述例词中[p]p音位音位变体音位音子表现者说应该音位变体决定语音情景环境音位选择非意性般情况规律循音位学家务探寻规律
3．立体（minimal pair）
谓立体指两语音形式（词）语音片段外余部分完全相状态pill billpill dilldill kill等语音形式（词）形成立集英语汉语少立体存学者容易辨英语音位汉语音位音位学家研究种陌生语言语音音位系统时必须着意寻找立体
4．三种类型分布（分布互补分布变异）
容易观察语音学相似语音间两种关系l]码相似语音果两区性音位意思形成立果音位变体意思形成立请研究面单词发音：
rope[rEup]robe[rEub]pin[phin]bin[bin]pot[phCt]spot[spCt]
发现三语音语音学相似[p][ph][b]特征塞音双唇音重语言学问题语音分布相互联系首先会发现[ph][b]词首位置互相立pinbill中发现词首位置互相立roperobe中出结／p／／b／出现相语音环境中意义间关系音位立分布(contrastive distribution)
方面[p][ph]立音位／p／音位变体出现语音环境中说英语发音／p／首音时选择送气音位变体[ph]：果／p／出现／s／音会选择送气音位变体[P]音位两音位变体间关系互补分布简单说谓互补分布(complementary distributiuon指语音环境中出现两音形成者说果中代产生新词新义说两音处变异位众周知英语爆破音时失爆破（处爆破音鼻音间时）底爆破爆破产生新词新义区严式标音法标示出果必爆破音未爆破饿变体种变异关系处变异两音应该作音位例英语中单词 direct 两种发音方式： di`rekt and dai`rekt 两语音 i and ai 处变异 样单词economics either dance等

5． 识音位原
确定两语音属两独立音位音位两音位变体需面四原验证
（1）果两音处分布两独立音位
（2）果两音总处变异两音音位音位变体
（3）果语音相似两音处|互补分布音位音位变体
（4）果两音处互补分布没语音相似性肯定两音位

6．区性特征

区性特征两音位相互区分特征区性特征告诉音位相概念初布拉格学派语言学家Jakobson提出第13章讨重概念

7． 音位规
（1）序列规
识种语言音位仅音系学家部分务须找出音位组合方式种特定语言中语音模式受规制约音位系统决定音位作单词词首词尾．音位互相假四张卡张面印英语音位：kbli现排列四张卡排出出现英语单词排列出样组合：blikklibbilkkilb音位知识告诉仅音位排列英语中容许
1bkiilbkbkili1kb等英语单词
表明种特定语言中．语音组合受规制约规作序列规．英语中许样序列规例果单词…者[r]首紧语音必须元音什英语中[1bik][1kbi]样组合违背音位排序限制
外果三辅音时出现单词词首语音组合必须遵列规：
1)第音位必须／s／
2)第二音位必须／p／／t／／k／
3)第三音位必须／1／／r／／w／
什英语中三辅音组合首单词spring [spriN]strict [strikt]square [skwZa]splendid [splendid]scream[skrim]样单词
制约音位模式规语言英语中容许音位模式种语言中容许例：软腭鼻音请编辑插入软腭鼻音鼻音
[N]英语汉语普通话中出现词首语言中汉语方言中出现词首说越南语海广东话中
（2）化规
化规通模仿序列音位特征语音语音相似两音子变相似相邻语音化程度发音程生理程引起说话时倾发音更简便种马虎倾变成语言规
知道鼻音化英语中音位特征换言区意义说英语中元音实际发音中鼻音化事实定语音环境中鼻音化
化规解释齿龈鼻音[n]语音组合中发音变化规单词中鼻音[n]处发音部位紧辅音发音部位变样知道英语中前缀in加形容词前词义变原义相反：discreet — indiscreetcorrect — incorrect前缀in 中[n]音总发成齿龈鼻音单词indiscreet中发成齿龈鼻音紧辅音[d]音齿龈塞音[n]音单词incorrect中事实发成软腭鼻音[N]紧辅音[k]软腭塞音出发[n]音时．模仿紧辅音特征
数情况语音化实际体现关单词拼写中知道possible否定形式impossibleinpossible[n]音化成[m]音出样原plausiblelegalregular否定形式implausibleillegalirregular然单词inputunproductiveunbeatable化词发音中确存迄止拼写没体现出
（3）省略规
音位规省略规告诉什时候语音拼写中存发音时省略已注意单词signdesignparadigm中拼写中字母g发音时没[g]音相应形式signaturedesigrmtiorlparadigmatic中字母g代表[g]音发音规样描述：[gl音出现位词尾鼻辅音前时省略鉴规sign — signatureresign — resignationphlegm — phlegmaticparadigm — paradigmatic词中词根音位表达包含音位／g／．果没加缀根通常规发音时音位省略

8．超切分语音特征
直讨音位——区分意义语音切分成分区性特征两音位切分成分组成序列中体现出出现切分成分层面音系特征做音节单词句子等语言单位音系特征超切分特征包括重音声调语调连音
（1）重音
根重音存语境重音分两种：单词重音语句重音
说词某音节重读时意思发音节音时力气发音节音时力气．重音相概念：两音节词单词重音说单音节词音节词单词重音
语言固定单词重音．换言单词重音总特定音节说第音节者音节者第二音节英语中重音意固定单词特定音节位置固词异英语中重音位置区意义
类似重音变化出现复合名词相成分组成词组中前述英语复合词音系特征单词重音常第成分第二成分次重音例复合词blackbird两部分——blackbird构成发词音时重读第成分black果降调发词音语调降出现第重读音节：blackbirdblackbird指种特乌定黑色鸟名词短语blackbird短语指黑色鸟名词短语复合词重音名词词组bird名词black修饰语bird读重降调发词组音时语调处降：black bird类似重音模式导致意义greenhousegreenhousehotdoghotdog两词词组体现出a `green house — 玻璃屋顶四壁供热系统房子种植需光热怕风植物a green `house — 座绿色房子：a `hotdog — 种面包卷香肠做成快餐a hot `dog — 感热狗
单词重音区意义作表现ing形式加名词组合中英语中ing形式加名词常见：diningroomreading glassessewing machinesleeping babyswimming fish形式样ing形式+名词组合两种类型种ing形式起修饰名词作：diningroom间餐屋子reading glasses读书时戴眼镜sewing machine缝纫机器实际复合名词两部分写成单词加连字符写成两独立词惯问题
般说ing形式+名词类组合形式音发复合名词样单词重音总第成分第二成分次重音`diningroom`reading glasses`sewing machine
种ing形式+名词组合说名词实际ing形式指称动作发出者例sleepingbaby意思正睡觉孩swimming fish 思正游水鱼复合名词带ing分词修饰语名词词组组合说宅重音T第成分mg形式名词ing形式次重音：sleeping’babyswimming’fish较swimming baby(正睡觉孩)’sleepingcar(卧铺车)swiming’fish(正游水鱼)’swimming—pool(游泳池)
语句重音指发句子中某单词音时较力单词重重词发音时力较显突出英语中较重词名词动词形容词副词指示代词类词冠词称代词助动词介词连词通常重读例He is driving my car．句子中通常重读动词driving名词car会词重读：强调开车样事实说话者重读物代词my然物代词般情况重读
（2）声调
声调指音高变化变化声带振动频率引起正音位样音高变化区意义声调超切分特征声调区意义功声调语言中特重英语声调语言母语汉语典型声调语言四声调：阴阳声声声调作通发语音组合ma四声调说明：mā (mother) má (hemp) mǎ (horse) and mà (scold)
（3）语调
音高重音音长附句子单单词时素合起做语调种语言中语调表达意义方面起着重妥作英语样语言中尤英语四种基语调四音调：降调升调降升调升降调常前三种序列词语调讲时意义般说降调表明说直截实事求话升调表示疑问降升调暗示
（4）连音
外超切分特征连音例：
I scream ai + skrim ice cream ais + krim
it sprays it + spreiz it’s praise its + preiz
a name E + neim an aim En + eim
grey tape grei + teip great ape greit + eip
see the meat si + TE + mit see them eat si + TEm + it
连音二语外语学者听力理解实践中难点尤文语境清楚时候




第五章 形态学（Morphology）
l 章考点
1 形态学范围（The scope of morphology）
2 语素定义（Definition of morpheme）
3 词根词缀语素粘着语素关系（Interrelations between roots affixes free morphemes and bound morphemes）
4 前缀缀中缀（Prefixes suffixes and infixes）
5 屈折派生词缀（Inflectional and derivational affixes）
6 词根词干词基（Root stem and base）
7 语素语子语素变体（morphemes morphs and allomorphs）
8 空语子零语子（Empty morph and zero morph）
9 直接成分分析（IC Analysis）
10 构词法（Wordformation processes）
l 课文理解重点容分析
1 形态学研究范围
形态学研究词部结构构词规词构成意遵特定规形态学发现规形态学分两分支学种屈折形态学词汇派生形态学前者研究词屈折变化者研究词构成
2 语素定义
语素语言意义单位句子单词构成常分析单词单词常做语言单位词进步分析词分成更成分处单词低层意义成分称语素
3 词根词缀语素粘着语素相互关系
根语义语素分词根词缀根结构语素划分语素粘着语素请列单词：
helper à helper table à table
roommate à roommate quicken à quicken
frightening à frightening disabled à disabled
warmer à warmer biology à biology
soliloquy à Saliloquy assistant à assistant
carelessly à carelessly symphony à symphony
会立刻识出中语素单词例：helptableroommatequickfrightable词包括语素称语素语素独立意义单位够独面划分出余语素erendisbiolesssym明显语素够单独称粘着语素
粘着语素：粘着语素单独必须语素——语素粘着语素——结合起形成单词语素粘着语素包括两类：词根词缀词根做词部分清楚明确意思．单独存必须词根词缀组合构成单词英语中样词根例词根geo意思球土意思学问分支词根ology组合起时geology单词意思球构造研究
audi—listening：auditor audience auditorium
gene—life：generategeneticgenital (生殖)
semi—half：semiconductor semifinal
aqu—water：aquarium(水族馆)aquatic(水水生)
loqu—speech：eloquentloquacious(饶舌)soliloquy
ium—hall：stadium(露天运动场) gymnasiumauditoriumaquarium
path—emotion：sympathyempathy(移情作)
tolerendure：tolerate tolerable
thermo—heat：thermometerthermostatic(温度调节装置)thermonuclear(高热原子核反应)
manu—hand：manuscript(手稿)manual(手册)manufacture
词根词缀语素粘着语素关系图形象直观说明：
B R

R
B




F A

F free morphemes （语素） B bound morphemes（粘着语素）
R roots （词根） A affixes（词缀）
B R bound roots
图表51 词根词缀语素粘着语素相互关系
（参见王永祥支永碧2007：55）
4 前缀缀中缀
词缀粘着词素（词素）身构词成分素统称细分三类：前缀缀中缀英语许前缀缀中缀数Foot 变成feet 中ee中缀实质屈折罢说英语许前缀缀限词素词汇相词缀数目十分限词汇学词典包容全部词汇囊括全部词缀说明少学者认英语存中缀前缀缀语种存中缀事实里述中缀
5 屈折词缀派生词缀
词缀两类：屈折词缀派生词缀
屈折词缀屈折语素表明种语法关系语法范畴数性时体格级等词尾说英语俄语法语德语语言简单历史发展中英语已丢弃相屈折词缀保留：
(e)s标示名词复数
(e)s标示现时第三称单数
(e)d标示时
ing标示进行体
er标示形容词副词较级
est标示形容词副词高级
s标示名词格
派生词缀加原单词构成新词英语中种常见构成新词方式样方式派生法派生法构成新词做派生词够加派生词缀原语素做词干词干粘着词根语素者身派生词例：
tolerate 语根toler+词缀ate
quickly 语素quick+词缀ly
carelessness 语素care+词缀less派生词careless+词缀ness
根新词中位置词缀分两种：前缀缀前缀出现单词开头缀结尾
英语中常见前缀例子
dis：dislikediscontinuedisagree
un：uneasyunconsciousunfavorableunlock
in：incorrectindirect
mis：misinformmistakemisplace
de：devaluate(贬值)decentralizedeoxidize(氧)
over：overdooverheatoverpopulate
uni：unifyunilateral(单方面单边)unicorn(独角兽)
前缀改变词干意思通常改变原词词性been(m)例外加形容词名词前会词变成动词例：little—belittlelarge—enlargerich—enrichbody—embody
缀加词干末尾改变原词意思情况改变原词词性构成名词缀构成形容词缀构成副词缀构成动词缀例子：
er：teacherwriterbeginner
ician：electricianmathematician physician
bility：possibilitysolubility capability
hood：childhoodmanhood
age：orphanageanchorage(停泊／抛锚点)vicarage(牧师住处)
ary：elementarysecondary
ful：beautifuldelightful sorrowful
en：weakendarken|deepen
ize：modernize nationalizem mechanize
ly：slowlyhighlydimlyjoyfully
ward：forwardeastwardupward
关屈折词缀派生词缀请参考参考面两图表（王永祥支永碧2007：6061）：
English inflectional affixes
Affixes
Grammatical functions
Examples
s
Third person singular present tense marker
Tom talks
s
Plural number marker
The chairs are his
ed
Past tense marker
Tom talked
ed en
Past participle markers perfect aspect
Tom has talked it was stolen
ing
Present participle marker progressive aspect
Tom is talking
’s
Possessive case marker
John’s friend came here
er
Comparative degree marker
He is thinner than Tom
est
Superlative degree marker
Tom is the tallest in his class
English derivational affixes
Bases
Derivational affixes
New words
agree
dis
disagree
happy
ly
happily
danger
en
endanger
use
ful
useful
teach
er
teacher
luck
y
lucky
6 词根词基词干
首先说明少教材没严格区分词基词干两概念教材词干词根词基混谈时候词词缀角度区分词干词基似更利家区分二者书样界定词干词基果算单词面加派生词缀原单词形式词基果算单词面添加屈折词缀原单词词干换句话说掉派生词缀词词基掉屈折词缀词词干果掉词缀单词改变身份词义情况词缀词词根意义词根词干词基词干定词根词基定词根： derivational 掉alderivation词相derivational 说词基决词根掉名词性词缀tionderive时derive 词根词基举derives例掉屈折词缀s单词derive词根称词干具体请参见英语语言学概（王永祥支永碧2007：62）
7 语素语子语素变体关系
语素(morpheme)抽象概念语言语法系统里意义单位（ie minimal meaningful uints in the grammatical syetem of language）语子（morph）语素语言中具体体现语言中实现语素具体形式（morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general or the actual forms used to realize morphrmres）语素变体（allomorph）某具体语素体现形式语素语素变体抽象(allomorphs are realizations of a particular morpheme and morphemes are more abstract than their allomorphs)说明通常语子语素变体放 里语素(morpheme)放{}中
8 空语子零语子
谓空语子形式意义语子r children中空语子children 分析 child + r + en谓零语子意义形式语子符号￠代表零语子work they work in Nanjing中分析work + ø
9 直接成分分析
直接成分分析（Immediate constituent Analysisnamely IC Analysis）种分析法分析语素层级结构层级序（hierarchical order ）通直接成分分析法语素分两部分（two groups）然部分分两次部分(two subgroups)直分止 单词 replacements disapproval等分析：
replacements disapproval

replacement s disapprove al

replace ment dis approve

re place
面图表称树型图（treebranch diagrams）底端语素成终成分（Ultimate Constituentes namely the irreducible constituents） 面语素次二分语素直接成分（immediate Constituents）然终成分身相直接坐标语素说直接成分place replace坐标语素说直接成分replacements 说终成分
10 构词法：构词程
英语语言学概中新词铸造法（coinage coining）borrowing(法)外探讨7种常见构词法派生法（derivation）复合法（compounding）转化法（conversion）混合构词法（blending）剪切法（clipping）逆构词法（backformation）首字母缩略法(acronymy)面首先coining borrowing进行界定说明：
19 新词铸造法（coinage coining invention）
通常认类早发展阶段种语言基词汇通新词铸造法 早产品商标名早期aspirin nylon等较Xeror Kodax Clone等词语属新词铸造法
20 法（borrowing）
法（borrowing） 英语语言里尤古代英语（Old English）中古英语（Middle English）常见新词源法般分四种类型：
化词（Denizens）：
非化词（Aliens）：
译词（Translationloans）：
义词（Semantic borrowings）：
现分析7种构词法构词程（wordformation processes）
（1）派生法（derivation）
派生法（derivation）称词缀法通增加前缀缀产生新词：
Table 54 affixation
Affixation
Bases
New words
Prefixation
en
able
enable
dis
obey
disobey
il
literate
illiterate
mis
fortune
misfortune
re
write
rewrite
Suffixation
ly
friend
friendly
ism
international
internationalism
ness
useful
usefulness
less
use
useless
en
strength
strengthen

（2）复合法（compounding）
复合法（compounding）两两语素组合起产生新词汇程forgetmenot waterbedsleepwalk等复合法产构词法产生新词称复合词般三种类型复合词： （横线连接复合词）hyphenated compoundsfatherinlawbabyfaced等（固体复合词）solid compoundsfingerprint sunburndoorknob等 开放性复合词（open compound）April Fools Day Boston terrier等等
（3）转化法（conversion）
转化法（conversion）称功转换法（functional shift）零派生法( zero derivation)产生新词程中没原单词增加词缀词型便词性已变现代英语里种构词法常具体转换形式详见表：

Table 55英语语言里常见转化构词法（ Major categories of conversion in English）

Conversion
Examples
verb à noun
He answered my question at once à He gave me the answer at once
noun à verb
The bottle is full of water à The soft drinks are bottled
adj à noun
At that time my family was very rich à The poor man hates the rich very much
adj à verb
He wears the dirty clothes à He dirtied the water unintentionally
adv à verb
He ordered the soldier to come up à They up the prices intentionally
adv àverb
He put down his bag on the floor à He downed a few beers and left the room
noun à adj
The model is standing there drinking gracefully à The boy likes the model plane very much
时种形式通转化种功：last 物动词非物动词名词副词形容词
(1) The food can only last us three days(vt)
(2) The film lasted two hours (vi)
(3) He is the last to leave the room (n)
(4) Who laughs last laughs best (adv)
(5) Who was the last one to leave the room (adj)
（4）拼缀法（blending）
混合构词法（blending）j原两单词部分掉剩余饿部分组合起构成新单词程通常四类混合构词法见表：
Table 59 Main categories of blending in English
Type No
Categories of blending
Examples
1
the 1st part of the 1st word
+
the 1st part of the 2nd word
teleprinter + exchange telex
modulator + demodulator modem
international + police Interpol
communication + satellite comsat
2
the 1st part of the 1st word
+
the 2nd part of the 2nd word
helicopter + airport heliport
breakfast + lunch brunch
smoke + fog smog
motor + hotel motel
news + broadcast newscast
transfer + resistor transistor
glass + asphalt glasphalt
smoke + murk smurk
channel + tunnel Chunnel
smoke + maze smaze
television + broadcast telecast
Spanish + English Spanglish
simultaneous + broadcast simulcast
3
the 1st part of the 1st word
+
the whole form of the 2nd word
medical + care medicare
documentary + drama docudrama
parachute + troops paratroops
Motor + town Motown (nickname for Detroit)
Europe + Asia Eurasia
4
the whole form of the 1st word
+
the 2nd part of the 2nd word
talk + marathon talkathon
travel + catalogue travelogue
walk + marathon walkathon
air + hotel airtel

（5）剪切法（clipping）
讨剪切法（clipping）首字母缩略法(acronymy)前首先缩略法（abbreviation）词典里常abbre字样实abbreviation时略法等剪切法（clipping） prof( professor)telly（television）等典型缩略法（abbreviation）例子
剪切法（clipping）样种构词程通删原词更音节缩短原词（通常名词）产生新词改变原词语意义词性注意剪切法 导致词语文体变化正式变非正式通常四种类型剪切法：
Table 510 Examples of 4 cases of clipping
Type No
Categories of clipping
Definitions
Examples
original forms
clipped forms
1
back clipping
the process of wordformation in which a word is shortened by deleting the end of the word
advertisement
ad
photograph
photo
automobile
auto
amplifier
amp
champion
champ
microphone
mike
gymnasium
gym
facsimile
fax
condominium
condo
2
front clipping
the process of wordformation in which a word is shortened by removing the beginning of the word
telephone
phone
airplane
plane
omnibus
bus
parachute
chute
earthquake
quake
3
front and back clipping
the process of wordformation in which a word is shortened by discarding both the beginning and the end of the word
influenza
flu
refrigerator
fridge
detective
tec
4
phrase clipping
the process of wordformation in which a phrase is shortened by dropping the end of the 1st word and the whole of the 2nd
zoological garden
zoo
popular music
pop
public house
pub
permanent waves
perm
（6）逆序造词法逆生法（backformation）
逆构词法（backformation）种特殊单词缩短法通删原词中假定谓缀产生新词相缀法相反形式：
babysit from babysitter
beg from beggar
burgle from burglar
concord from concordance
diagnose from diagnosis
difficult from difficulty
donate from donation
eavesdrop from eavesdropping
edit from editor

（7）首字母缩略法(acronymy)
首字母缩略法(acronymy)通干单词首字母写组合起产生新词程通种方式产生新词两类型：acronymsinitials前者单独单词发音字母发音形式存者单词发音组合起单词：
(1) Acronyms
AIDS from acquired immune deficiency syndrome
NASA from National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NATO from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
OPEC from Organization of Petroleum Countries
PIN from Personal Identification Number
Radar from Radio Detecting and Ranging
SARS from severe acute respiratory syndrome
TEFL from teaching English as a foreign language
TESL from teaching English as a second language
TESOL from teaching English to speakers of other languages
(2) Initialisms
AD from Anno Domini
ATM from Automatic Teller Machine
BC from Before Christ
COD from cash on delivery
EEC from European Economic Community
UFA from unidentified flying object
UN from the United Nations
VOA form Voice of America
WTO from World Trade Organization
前面讨种常见构词法里提醒时新单词产生涉止种构词法hardliner两种构词法参复合法派生法


第六章 句法学（Syntax）
●章考点
1 句法定义（Definition of syntax）
2 语法形态学句法学关系（Relation between grammar morphology and syntax）
3 三种句法关系：聚合横组合等级关系（Three syntactic relations syntagmatic paradigmatic and hierarchical relations）
4 直接成分分析带标记直接成分分析话语标记法括弧法（IC Analysis labeled IC Analysis phrase markers and labeled bracketing）
5 成分语法关系存语法关系（Constituency and dependency）
6 表层结构深层结构（Surface structures and deep structures）
7 短语结构规（Phrase structure rules）
8 转换规（Transformational rules）
9 结构歧义（ Structural ambiguity）
●课文理解重点容分析：
1 句法学定义（Definition of syntax）
句法研究词词组短语组合成句子种种规规律方式研究句子中种成分间关系句法研究语言句子结构句法术语初希腊语字面意思排列句子根种特定排列词方式构成排列正确句子认合语法句子合语法句子根套句法规构成句法规系统
2 语法形态学句法学关系（Relation between grammar morphology and syntax）
Bussmann (2000 194)认语法关然语言形态规句法规知识研究形态学语法部分研究词语部结构构词程语言学分支学科句法学语法部分研究词词组短语间关系组成句子规规律方式研究句子中种成分间关系语言学分支学科
3 三种句法关系：横组合聚合等级关系（Three syntactic relations syntagmatic paradigmatic and hierarchical relations）
横组合关系指单位序列中单位间关系现成分间关系处组合关系词必须满足 句法语义条件
聚合关系指结构某特殊位置彼相互换成分间关系者现成分非现成分间关系聚合关系中词语受句法限制语义素考虑范围处聚合关系中词语句法特征语义互相换组合聚合关系坐标两根轴起决定语言符号身份组合关系水关系链状关系聚合关系垂直关系选择关系联想关系换关系
组合聚合关系句子层级序组织句子句组成句短语组成短语单词组成句子部层次构成等级结构句子等级结构通直接成分分析法带标记直接成分分析法短语标记法带标记括弧法进行分析
4 直接成分分析带标记直接成分分析短语标记语带标记括弧法（IC Analysis labeled IC Analysis phrase markers and labeled bracketing）
句子层级结构句子里词首先构成词组句子构成素间关系做结构体成分间关系分析种关系重方法直接成分分析法简称IC分析法直接成分分析法先句子分析直接成分词组(短语)直接成分次切分直接成分层层切分直终成分止实际操作中方便通常切分词止直接成分分析法括弧树形图表示 切分直接成分标准换性：词语序列 否单词换结构保持变IC分析法清晰呈现句子结构揭示歧义
直接成分分析法揭示具相似相结构句子间差异语言学尝试相应成分加标记改进直接成分分析弥补足种修改直接成分分析法称带标记直接成分分析图61示：
(1)
His brother stayed at home S

His brother NP stayed at home VP

His Det brother N stayed V at home PP

at P home N
图61带标记直接成分分析
然带标记直接成分分析揭示句子间结构差异样方法太累赘麻烦次修改句子层面短语层面词语直接短语标记符号开代终成分直接单词表记种修改句子分析法短语标记法图62示：
(2) S

NP VP

Det N V AP

ADVP Adj

Adv

These apples are very sweet
图62 短语标记法
带标记括弧进行句子等级结构分析带标记括弧法：
(3) [S[NP[Det the] [N apples]] [VP[V are] [AP[ADVP[Adv very]] [Adj sweet]]]]
5 成分关系存关系（ Constituency and dependency）
直接成分分析 带标记括弧法等句子成分结构语法分析法成分结构分析种等级结构句法分析 语言形式分布揭示结构层面成分间关系
种句法分析法存关系句法分析法根语言符号功通句子结构素间存关系解释语法关系存语法关注句子存结构描述 描述句子素间存关系结构存语法句子两素成分间支配素成分存素成分果支配成分存支配成分形成复杂等级存序句子中绝支配者动词图63示：




V

N N ADV

ART ART ADV

The boy likes the book very much
图63 存关系句法分析法
6 表层结构深层结构（ Surface structures and deep structures）
句法移位语法研究启示句子结构两层次句法表现存移位发生前存移位发生正规语言学研究中两种句法表现般称深层结构(D—structurethe deep structure)表层结构(Sstructure意思致the surface structure)短语结构规通插入词汇深层结构生成句子应句法移位规句子深层结构转化表层结构着转换生成分析方面图示概括语法中句法成分组合：
语法句法成分：
Phrase Structure Rules+the Lexicon
(短语结构规) (词汇)

D—structure

Movement Rules
(移位规)

Sstructure
必须指出说句子两层次句法表现——深层结构表层结构时说句子句法层次起必须非句子发生句法移位句子深层结构表层结构表现层次完全相
英语语言学概（王永祥支永碧2007：84）里探讨句子动态研究涉两层面句子深层结构表层结构深层结构通短语结构规生成表层结构深层结构通转换规转换整动态分析程图示：
PS rules

Deep structures

Trules

Surface structures
7 短语结构规（Phrase structure rules）
然学短语划分四类现短语身结构规：句子(S)名词词组(NP)动词词组(VP)组成图示：

种组合模式线性算式重写称短语结构规重写规：S—NP VP
箭头读作包含重写样算式中规读作句子包含重写名词词组动词词组
NP少七种供选择短语结构规：NDet NDet Adj NA dj NDet N sDet Adj N PPDet Adj N PP sNP必须包含名词(N)意选择
NP(Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S)
规读成名词词组包含重写冠词形容词名词介词词组()句子中名词必须．选成分VP短语结构规：
VP—V(NP)(PP)(S)
写出AP短语结构规PP短语结构规
AP—A(PP)(S)(curious／curious of the restJlts／curious that no one was there)
PP—P NP(after the English class)
短语结构规循环性：规循环性运造出数句子甸子叉限长句子包含动词词组包含句子动词词组包含句子句子中包含动词词组介词词组包含名词词组名词词组介词词组名词词组包含介词词组介词词组包含名词词组()句子规语法规部分足解释什语言具创造性什说话记忆力限表达理解限句子说循环性体现语言中句子够更成分说话者够句子中重复句法成分面常见短语结构规（Phrase Structure rules）
S à NP AUX VP
NP à (Det) (AP) N
(AP)
AP à Adj
(ADVP)
ADVP à (ADVP) Adv
(NP) (PP) (S)
VP à V (AP)
(ADVP)
PP à P NP
AUX à Tense (Modal) (Perf) (Prog)
Present
Tense à
Past
Modal à can may must will shall etc
Perf à haveEN
Prog à beING
8 转换规（Transformational rules）
转换规（Transformational rules）深层结构转换成表层结构规般两部分组成：1）结构描述（the structural descriptionnamely SD）2）结构变化（the structural change SC）常见转换规概9种：
（1） TAffix（词缀转换规）
（2） TPassive(动转换规)
（3） Tagent deletion（删施事者转换规）
（4） Tnegation（否定转换规）
（5） TDo insertion（助动词do插入转换规）
（6） TYes or No question（般疑问句转换规）
（7） TWhword insertion（疑问词插入转换规）
（8） TReflexive（反身代词转换规）
（9） TImperative（祁句转换规）
转换规中Taffix必转换规表层结构产生必须Taffix hopping参转换规选择性
特注意转换规序重：
1) TReflexive must be applied before TImperative
2) TPassive must be applied before TReflexive
3) TPassive must be applied before TNegation
4) TPassive must be applied before TYes or No question
5) TAffix is always finally applied
6) TAgentdeletion is always applied immediately after TPassive
7) TDoinsertion is always applied immediately after TNegation
8) TDoinsertion is always applied immediately after TYes or No question
9) The basic order of transformations for Whword questions
TWhword insertion à TYes or No question (à TDo insertion) à TWhword switching à TAffix hopping Whword insertion rule
9结构歧义（Structural ambiguity）
歧义通常歧义词语歧义结构导致歧义词汇引起歧义词汇歧义歧义结构引起歧义结构歧义通常结构歧义分：表层结构歧义潜结构歧义关结构歧义例子举：
(1) John is eager to please
歧义存Johnto please逻辑关系John to please逻辑语John is eager to please othersto please 逻辑宾语John is eager to be pleased
(2) They decided on the train
介词ondecide 搭配意思they chose to take the traiin on the train 搭配做句子状语意思They made a decision on the train火车做出决定
(3) They are cooking apples
cooking谓语动词部分带宾语apple 表语部分充apple定语句子两含义：
第种含义Those people are preparing food by heating apples 第二种含义：Those are apples for cooking
(4) Mary hit a man with an umbrella
句子歧义with an umbrella做整句子状语做宾语定语Mary雨伞男说Mary雨伞男
(5) I like Eve as well as Gloria
as well as引起结构歧义
含义 1 I like Eve as well as I do Gloria喜欢 Eve 喜欢Gloria样
含义 2 I like Eve as well as Gloria does herGloria样喜欢Eve
含义 3 I like both Eve and Gloria喜欢 Gloria喜欢Eve
总样结构歧义胜枚举日常生活中尤英语写作中倍加心

第七章 语义学（Semantics）
●章考点
1 语义学定义（Definition of semantics）
2 语义学分支（Subbranches of semantics）
3 意义理（Theories of meaning）
4 指称参外延涵指称象意义延申意图概念意涵字义(Reference denotation connotation referent sense extension intension concept implicature signification)
5 意义类型（Types of meaning）
6 意义素（Elements of meaning）
7 成分分析（Componential analysis）
8 语义场（Semantic field）
9 词汇关系（ Lexical relations）
10 决定句义素（Essential factors for determining sentence meaning）
11 句间意义关系（Sense relations between sentences）
12 述谓分析谓词题元命题（predication analysis Predicate argument proposition）
13 语义三角理（The theory of Semantic Triangle）
●课文理解重点容分析
1 语义学定义（Definition of semantics）
语义学研究意义学科研究语言意义交际功哲学家心理学家语言学家语义学感兴趣哲学家想解语言形式指客观世界种种现象关系（真假值问题）心理学家想通语言解脑心理活动语言学家研究运语言形式时表达定意义
2 语义学分支（Subbranches of semantics）
语义学进行分类件非常复杂事情根标准分类笼统说发现样分支学科操作语义学框架语义学然语义学词汇语义学形式语义学功语义学句法词汇语义学等等进行正确分类必须定标准例：
根否属语言学范畴John Lyons (200011) 语义学分语言语义学非语言语义学（哲学语义学心理语义学逻辑语义学等）
根语言中表达层面文秋芳（1995：210）语义学分：词汇语义学（lexical semantics）句子语义学(sentence semantics or sentential semantics)
历时角度说语义学历史时期具研究目标李福印（2006：22）语义学发展历史分5阶段：1）19世纪末语义学术语开始2）19世纪90年代20世纪30年代历史哲学语义学时期3）20世纪20年代20世纪30年代现代语义学孕育发展阶段4）20世纪60年代现代语义学产生流派结构语义学生成语义学等影响5）20世纪70年代现代语义学开始发展时典型流派包括蒙太古语义学逻辑语义学认知语义学等
3 意义理（Theories of meaning）
John Lyons(2000：40)述六区分具哲学性意义理：
（1） 指称理（referential theory or denotational theory）
（2） 意念理（ideational or mentalistic theory）
（3） 行义理（behaviorist theory）
（4） 意义理（ meaningisuse theory）
（5） 验证性义理（verificationist theory）
（6） 真值条件理（truthconditional theory）
李福印（2006：40）增加语义三角理（文第13点详细介绍）
4 指称参外延涵指称象意思词义延申意图概念意涵字义（Reference denotation connotation referent sense extension intension concept implicature signification）
指称(Reference)：语言表达（命名词语符号）表示客观事物现象间关系（the relation between the linguistic expression and the object in extralinguistic reality to which it refers to）表现定文
外延(denotation)：语言符号身固恒定抽象基意义数类事物中抽象出概括出特征赖话语语境场景涵意义相语言体系中语言表达意义部分外延词汇意义注意指称（reference）恰恰相反变化赖话语场合指称义相应改变
涵(connotation)：情感联想关词汇意义部分语言表达情感成分赖语境语言弦外音关文秋芳91995）涵分三种类型：肯定涵中性涵否定涵：
Table 71 Three types of connotation
Positive connotation
Neutral
Negative connotation
stout
fat
corpulent
investigator
detective
spy
decease
die
pegged out
slim
thin
skinny
strongminded
firm
pigheaded
public servant
government employee
bureaucrat
(cited from Wen Qiufang 1995 211)
指称象(referent)：谈事物语言符号指客观事物现象
意义词义(sense)：John Lyons 说意义（sense）词义指词语言词汇中词构成关系中占位置纯粹种限语言词汇系统中词词间语义关系客观世界中事物发生直接联系意义词义（sense） 词义词汇意义外常常带感情色彩情感义外延(denotation)词汇意义（lexical mwaning）
涵（connotation意涵（impicature）含义（implication）皆指言外意意涵（implicature）指意违反GriceP说合作原准产生言外力般称会话含义
延申(extension)：语言符号正确表示实体类（the class of entities to which a linguistic expression is correctly applied）
意图(intention)：决定语言符号性套识性特征（the set of defining properties which determines the applicability of a linguistic expression）
特需说明extension intention 外延（denotation）两方面意义相互补充
概念(conceptnotion)：客观事物头脑中印象换言客观事物现象基础概括成说思维范畴概念意义（meaning ）词义（sense）基础者前者语言中表现形式双方相互存概念抽象东西词表达词语（linguistic expression）通概念(concept or notion)反映客观世界(referent the object we refer to )参见章点13语义三角理图解说明
字义（signification）指词词典意义相关联意义价值（value）相应HH Windowson 两词说明句子字义没交际价值某老师教授进行时指着鼻子说：正指着鼻子句话字义没价值
5 意义类型（Types of meaning）
意义（meaning）语言符号客观世界种关联根张友（1999）意义分：词汇意义语法意义词汇意义分概念意义（外延意义）联想意义联想意义分：涵意义文体意义情感意义搭配意义见表转引王永祥支永碧（2007：112）：
grammatical
meaning


meaning conceptual meaning ( also called denotative meaning)

lexical
meaning connotative meaning
stylistic meaning
affective meaning
collocative meaning
associative meaning
Figure 72 Classification of meaning
6 意义素（Elements of meaning）
根李福印（2006：62）意义素五关关系书作详述见表示：


概念


物体
符号





者
语境




Figure 74 意义五素
7 成分分析（Componential analysis）
成分分析——分析词汇种方法成分分析（Componential analysis）语义特征分析词义非分析整体作语义特征复合体词义更语单位谓语义特征（semantic features）结构语义学家提出：单词意义分析称作语义特征意义成分方法音位分析更做区性特征成分方法类似加减号表示某语义特征词义中存者省缺特征符号通常写字母写例单词man分析包含列特征：
+HUMAN+ANIMATE+MALE
成分分析处．通列出某单词语义特征显示单词意义什联系例manwoman两单词+HUMAN+ADULT+ANIMATE特征MALE特征：男男孩+HUMAN+ANIMATE+MALE特征ADULT特征相
换句话说成分分析解释说明涵义关系解释句子间意义关系语义成分分析研究概念词汇语义关系新尝试基特点实词意义分解成语义成分说意义特征分析词语manwomanboygirlchildperson：
(1) man [﹢human] [﹢adult] [﹢male]
(2) woman [﹢human] [﹢adult] [﹣male]
(3) boy [﹢human] [﹣adult] [﹢male]
(4) girl [﹢human] [﹣adult] [﹣male]
(5) child [﹢human] [﹣adult]
(6) person [﹢human]
8 语义场（Semantic field）
词语会孤立存总某种方式相互联系着形成语义场（ semantic field）语义场理德国结构义流派20世纪30年代发展起根理种语言词汇非仅仅独立词条列举组织成领域场场里词语间相互联系种方式互相界定（Cristal1985：274）
面关语义场例子：
(1) vegetable tomato pepper onion cabbage spinach cucumber etc
(2) fruit apple pear peach orange lemon mango pineapple etc
(3) color red orange green yellow black blue white pink purple etc
(4) get acquire receive obtain gain buy steal etc
(5) smell stink aroma perfume fragrance scent
根语义场理词语意义身决定语义场里词语关系决定种语言里词语语义关系系统中位置决定
汉语词汇红（英语词汇red）语义列句子里意义句子中词语意义决定限制
（1）)红蛋（red eggs ─ eggs dyed red to celebrate the birth of a child and distributed among friends and relatives）
（2）红白喜事（red and white affairs ─ weddings and funerals）
(3)红媒（matchmaker gobetween）
句子里红（red）意义完全相语境中红意义受词影响发生变化果解汉语文化外国难理解句（1）（2）（3）中红真正意义更例子说明种语言里语义场里词语意义词语关系决定
(4) 开门红（get off to a flying start）
(5) 红道（path of ascent in official hierarchy career as an official）
(6) 红角（popular actor actress）
(7) 红（favorite (with sb in power) fairhaired boy）
(8) 红发紫（(of a person) be extremely popular be all the rage (of an official) be at the height of one’s power and influence）
(9) 红极时（enjoy great popularity for a time be all the rage）
(10) 红粉知（beautiful woman who is a bosom friend）
(11) 红颜薄命（beautiful women suffer ill fates are illfated）
(12) 着富起红眼（He is green with envy at seeing some people get rich）
9 词汇关系（Lexical relations）
英语语言学概里分析Saeed(2003)关词汇关系（lexical relation）三分类形式关系（form relation）意义关系(sense relation)实体关系（object relation）面表格清楚说明问题：
Classification of lexical relations
No
Lexical relations
Broad categories
1
Homonymy
Form relation
2
Polysemy
Sense relations
3
Synonymy
4
Opposite (antonymy)
5
Hyponymy
6
Meronymy
Object relations
7
Membercollection
8
Portionmass
表格说明标记1678词汇关系意义关系（sense relaton）通三范畴阐述词汇关系面分形式关系（form relation）意义关系(sense relation)实体关系（object relation）
（1）形式关系（form relation）
需强调音异义形异义关系（homonymy）结意义关系太合适实际着重意义关系属词汇关系第范畴说音异义形异义现象中涉相关词汇意义间没什关系间关系通形体建立起形（音）异义指意义词着相语言形式现象．词发音拼写者两方面相音（形）异义关系（homonymy）种词汇歧义涉两两词语两更词语具相形体意义时形异义关系具词源背景词语分三类 ：完全音形异义（absolute perfectcomplete homonyms）形异义（homograghs）音异义(homophones)音（形）异义关系（homonymy）分三类关系：完全音形异义关系（absolute perfectcomplete homonymy）形异义关系（homograghy）音异义关系(homophony)两单词发音相时音异义词两词拼写相时形异义词注意两词homophone(音异义词)homograph(形异义词)构成词根homo意思样phone~graph意思分声音形式
关完全音形异义(absolute homonyms)例子：
ball (球spherical object or mass) and ball (舞会formal social gathering for dancing)
bank (河岸sloping ground on each side of river) and bank (银行establishment usually a public company where money is deposited withdrawn and borrowed)
bear (承担运载carry) and bear (熊heavy thickfurred mammal)
date (日期day of month) and date (枣子oval stone fruit)
ear (耳朵organ of hearing esp external part) and ear (谷穗seedbearing head of cereal plant)
fair (公just equitable) and fair (交易会periodic market)
found (动词find时分词past &past participle of FIND) found (成立establish originate) and found (melt and mould metal fuse materials for glass)
ground (面操场surface of earth) and ground (动词grind时分词past & past participle of GRIND)
rose (玫瑰prickly shrub bearing fragrant red pink yellow or white flowers) and rose (动词升rise时past of RISE)
sound (声音sensation produced in ear when surrounding air etc vibrates) and sound (健全正确healthy correct)
关形异义（homograghs）例子：
bass (bAs common perch) and bass (beis lowest adult male voice)
bow (bau incline head or body esp in greeting or acknowledgement) and bow (bEu weapon for shooting arrows)
sow (sEu scatter seed on or in earth) and sow (sau adult female pig)
wind (wind air in natural motion) and wind (waind go in spiral crooked or curved course)
关音异义(homophones)例子：
ad (colloquial word for advertisement) and add (join as increase or supplement)
blue (colored like clear sky) and blew (past of BLOW)
dear (beloved) and deer (4hoofed grazing animal male usually with antlers)
eye (organ or faculty of sight) and I (the pronoun used by speaker or writer to refer to himself or herself as subject of the verb)
flower (part of plant from which seed or fruit develops) and flour (meal or powder from ground wheat etc)
meat (animal flesh as food) and meet (encounter or (of two or more people) come together)
pair (set of two people or things) pear (fleshy fruit tapering towards stalk) and pare (trim or reduce by cutting away edge or surface of)
piece (distinct portion forming part of or broken off from larger object) and peace (freedom from or cessation of war)
right (correct true) rite (religious or solemn ceremony or observance) and write (mark paper or other surface with symbols letters or words)
rode (past of RIDE) and rowed (past of ROW)
sea (expanse of salt water covering most of earth) and see (perceive with the eyes)
son (male in relation to his parents) and sun (the star round which the earth travels and from which it receives light and warmth)
tail (hindmost part of animal esp extending beyond body) and tale (narrative or story esp fictitious)
threw (past of THROW) and through (from end to end or side to side of)
to (in direction of) two (one more than one) and too (to a greater extent than is desirable)
weak (lacking in strength power vigor resolution or number) and week (7day period reckoned usually from Saturday midnight)
(2) 意义关系(sense relation)
八词汇关系中意义关系四种词义关系（polysemy）义关系（synonymy）反义关系（antonymy）义关系（hyponymy）
1 词义关系（polysemy）
词义：时词相者相意义时单词意叉说词义样词义词词越常．越获意义现table词例英语中非常常词
(1)张桌子
(2)桌
(3)放桌子食物
(4)石板金属板木板等
(5)项目表表格等
(6)(机器)放料盘
(7)台高原
历史角度词义做词义成长发展变化结果假定table词形初意义指块石板木概做原始意义逐渐获现指称意义完全猜想学会木头做家具时样做成家具table单词table样新意义现单词table常意义原始意义反变常
2 义关系义现象指语义相相词叉相词义词
英语词汇中两类词：族语词词族语词列颠群岛表居民盎格鲁萨克森言语中初词语实际欧洲北部移民漫长发展中英语语言中吸收量词语语言欧洲语言法语拉丁语希腊语意利语德语词已然化英语中常发现成甚三词组意义致相词义词妊源间细微差完全义词情况互换义词罕见产生差异原分组：
(1)方言义词域方言中叉词：样义词域方言中意义致相词英国英语美国英语英语两理变体：
英国英语(B E) 美国英语(A E)
autlunn fall
lift elevator
luggage baggage
lorry truck
petrol gasoline
flat apartment
windscreen wimdshield
torch flashlight
方言义词英国英语美国英语语中存例girl苏格兰方言中做lass者1asseliquor爱尔兰方言中做whiskey
(2)文体义词——文体差异义词：样意义词文体者正式程度说单词较正式较意文体中性面例子：
old nlatldaddydadfathermale parent
start begin commence
kidchildoffsp ring
chappalfriendcompanion
kick the bucket．pop offdie．pass awaydecease
roomchamber
(3)情感意义评价意义义词：着相意叉表达者情感词语词暗示者谈事情态度倾例两词collaborator(合作者)accomplice(谋者帮凶)帮助样意思时二者义帮助做事称合作者犯罪行中帮助帮凶愿意词取决愿意样评价帮做事性质
economicalfrugal．thriftymeanmiserlystingy
he has been a very thrifty person all his life(生节俭)
Don’t you expect a loan from such a miserly man． (期吝啬手中钱)
likelove．admireadoreworship
He is a nice man and all the pupils like him．(气学生喜欢)
The pop singer is especially worshipped by teenagers．(流行歌手尤受年轻崇拜)
(4)搭配义词：义词搭配相．义词相配词相例．想说某做错事甚犯罪accusechargerebuke三词介词accuse…ofcharge…withrebuke…for描述变质适合食食物时形容词修饰食物rotten
tomatoesaddled eggsrancid bacon or buttersour milk
(5)语义义词：amazeastound两词surprise词意义非常接细微差amaze暗示困惑迷惑．astound暗示难置信：escapeflee均逃走意前者意味逃离愉快者危险事者意味匆匆离开
3 反义关系（antonymy）
反义关系指意义相反意义相反词反义词应受误导样认词语方面互相立实际立方面分出种反义词
(1)分级反义词
反义词级立样反义词中间常表示程度词意义相反实际程度问题例老年年轻两词马视反义词代表两极端中间存着代表年老年轻程度语言形式中年成熟稍老：样热冷间存着程度热冷情况凉爽温微温
(2)互补反义词
互补反义词具样特征否定中意味着肯定说非彼非彼问题例活着死男女．没性活着死互补反义词男’’女
(3)关系反义词
意义显示出逆关系词语关系反叉词例果AB丈夫BA妻子妻子丈夫组关系反义词’’父亲’’子老师学生医生病买’’’’卖’’租面面等美系反义词
4 义关系（hyponymy）
义关系：义关系指具般性包容性词更具体词间意义关系意义更具般性词义词意义更具体词叉词义询义词列义词：
义词：flower
义词：rose（ 玫瑰）tulip(郁金香)carnation(康馨)lily(百合花)morning glory(牵牛花)
义词：animal
义词：dogcattigerlionwolfelephantfoxbear
义词：furniture
义词：bedtabledeskdresser(梳妆台)wardrobe(衣柜)settee(背长椅)
义关系种包含关系意义说义词包含义词：
color


red blue white black green yellow pink orange purple grey …
(1) flower


carnation rose plum blossom morning glory chrysanthemum tulip lily orchid …
(2) animal


dog cat pig tiger lion wolf elephant monkey fox bear …
(3) furniture


bed desk chair table wardrobe dresser cupboard bookcase bench…

(4) fruit


apple papaya orange peach banana cherry grape plum
酒


葡萄酒 香摈酒 白酒 啤酒 汽酒 黄酒 料酒 米酒…
(5) beverage


beer milk orange juice tomato juice coconut milk coffee tea …
（3）实体关系（object relation）
实体关系（object relation）包含三种词汇关系组成部分整体关系（meronymy）成员集体关系（membercollection）部分整体关系（portioncollection）
组成部分整体关系（meronymy）：辆汽车许部件组成包括发动机 轮胎车轮 方盘手 车灯车刹座位等等(A car is made up of many partssuch as an engine tyres wheels a stering wheel a handlebar lights a brake seatsetc)车灯汽车关系部分整体关系
成员集体关系（membercollection）：成员集体关系涉全部书名词 Lynne is a girl student of Class 2句子中 Lynne 成员概念Class 2 诗歌集体概念 LynneClass 2构成成员集体关系 女生班级学生关系
部分整体关系（portionmass）：成员集体关系涉数名词说集体数名词组成go out and breathe some fresh air里fresh air 作部分(portion)区集体(mass) the air sorrounding the earth
10 决定句义素（Essential factors for determining sentence meaning）
决定句子意义素六点：1）构成句话单词意义2）句子语法功3）句子中语言形式间线性序4）音位特征5）等级序6）名词语义功
11 句子间意义关系（Sense relations between sentences）
句子问句子组成部分间定关系
(1) XY义关系
例： X：He was a bachelor(单身汉)all his life．
Y：He never married all his life．
否真实角度果x真Y真果X假Y假
(2)XY前矛盾关系
例： X：John is married．
Y：John is a bachelor．
否真实角度果x真Y假果x假Y真
(3)X蕴涵Y(YX蕴涵) ．
例： X：Iohn married a blond heiress(女继承)．
Y：John married a blond．
蕴涵种包含关系果X蕴涵YX意义Y包含
(4) X预示Y(YX先决条件)
例： X：John’S bike needs repairing．
Y：John has a bike．
(5)X矛盾句
句子X身相矛盾时．永远假例：Myunmarried sister is married tobachelor．(未结婚姐姐嫁单身汉)
(6)句子X语义反常
例：The table has bad intentions．(桌子意图)
X语义反常时荒唐预示矛盾面句子预示：张桌子意图荒唐抽象概念意图生命语桌子面
12 述谓结构分析谓词题元命题（ Predicate argument proposition）
述谓结构分析种分析句子意义方法
句子意义组成部分意义总句子意义通组成单词意义相加出例：
The dog bit the man．
The man bit the dog．
两句子完全相单词组成意义方面相径庭句子单词单词意义成分语义特征总更重句子意义包含两方面：语法意义语义
句子语法意义指语法性语法合规范句子语法性属语言规决定
The dog are chasing the cat．
He gave the book me．
We will went to Beijing tomorrow．
句子违背语法规
句子语义否意义称选择限制规决定选择限制词项词项搭配限制句子语法完全合规范．完全合属语言语法规语义毫意义原包含应放起单词固违背选择限制例：
Green clouds are sleeping furiously(猛烈)
Sincerity(诚挚)shook hands with the black apple
两子完全合语法规包含句子必需语法成分致时态没错误第二句存问题没见绿色云云会睡更会说猛烈睡第二句存问题诚挚抽象名词实施握手行没苹果握手说黑色苹果两句子违背选择限制两句子语义合规范
语言学家提出分析句子意叉方法分析基准体系目标句子意义抽象化现妥简介绍英国语言学家G里奇提出述谓结构分析法（predication analysis）句子进行语法分析时句子视基单位分析诸谓语定语样语法成分句子进行意义分析时句子基单位称述谓句子意义抽象化方法适句式．包括陈述句祈句疑问句述谓数题元谓词组成题元(argument)述谓逻辑参者句子中数名词性成分体致谓词（predicate）关题元陈述者说明句子题元间逻辑关系Tom smokes．句子陈述说题元TOM谓词SMOKE构成述谓写作TOM(SMOKE)句子语法形式影响语义述谓列句子说具样述谓：
Tom smokes．
Tom is smoking．
Tom has been smoking
Tom．smoke
Does Tom smoke
语义述谓TOM(SMOKE)语法种体现句子包括题元（元）止例Kids like apples句子kidsapples两名词性成分述谓结构写作KIDAPPLE(LIKE)句子题元（元）没包含非称代词it英语句子It is hot该句中it作题元(BE HOT)该句述谓谓词
根述谓结构分析理命题两部分组成：谓词（predicates）题元（arguments）数情况谓词动词形容词介词名词
根述谓中包含元数目述谓结构分两位述谓结构(包含两题元元)单位述谓结构(包含题元元)零位述谓结构(没题元元)
13 语义三角（semantic semiotic triangle）
语义三角理1923年Ogden Richard种典语义理语义三角基观点（图）概念思想词语符号直接联系指物事物存直接关系二者关系求助概念思想（虚线表示）
词语指物没必然联系事物词表达钢笔东西汉语里钢笔日语里万年笔英语里pen传统观点词语蝈蝈概念指物产生联系谓意义词语指物间关系建立种关系说话听话者心目中必须约定俗成双方理解概念行语义三角理然述解释语义现象种典理提出直受语义学界广泛争议批评
请编辑处三角形右腰倾斜印三行英文（腰行）相右腰居中排版：
adequate
refers to
(other causal relations)
请编辑处三角形左腰倾斜印三行英文（腰行）相左腰居中排版：
correct
symbolizes
(a causal relation)
Thought or reference





SYM BOL stands for REFERENT
(an imputed relation)
图 71 语义三角
(引 Ogden and Richards 1923 11 cited from Bussmann 2000 425)
Chapter Thirteen Schools of Modern Linguistics
1 Define the following terms
1) structural linguistcs
2) ideational function
3) the Prague school
4) the London School
5) American structuralism
6) TransformationaIGenerative (TG) Grammar
2 Fill in the blanks with appropriate words
1) The Prague School practiced a speeial style of _______ Linguistics
2) The Prague Seheol is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between _______ and phonology
3) The man who turned linguistics proper into a recognized distinct academic subject in Britain was_______
4) Halliday’s Systemic Grammar contains a functional component and the theory behind his Functional Grammar is ______
5) SystemicFunctional Grammar is a(n) _______ oriented functional linguistic approach
6) Stmetumlism is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be defined not in terms of meaning but in terms of_______
7) In the history of American linguistics the period between 1933 and 1950 is also known as the _______ Age
8) _______ in language theories is characteristic of America
9) The starting point of Chomsky’ s TG Grammar is his_______ hypothesis
10) Chomsky argues that LAD probably consists of three elements that is a __________ linguistic universal and an evaluation procedure
11) SystemicFunctional Grammar takes the actual uses of language as the object of study while Chomsky’s TG Gmnanar takes the ideal speaker’s linguistic _______ as the object of study
12) The specific method of Relational Grammar in describing language structure is the multilevel analysis of ______ relations
13) For Bloomfield linguistics is a branch of psychology and specifically of the positivistic brand of psychology known as_______
14) The Prague School can be traced back to its first meeting under the leadership of _______
15) The distinction between the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of the language which is called and the actual realization of this knowledge in utterance which is called _______ is made by American linguist Noam Chomsky
16) The context of situation of a text has been theorized by Halliday (Halliday and Hasan1985) in terms of the contextual variables of _______ _______ and _______
17) According to Halliday language and social context are complementary and he interprets context as including two communication planes _______ (context of situation) and _______ (context of culture)
18) The London School can be classified into two stages of development (1) the establishment and development period represented by ________ and _______ (2) the prime period represented by________
3 Choose the best answer
1) Discovering procedures are practiced by ____
A descriptive grammar B TGgrammar
C traditionalgrammar D functional grammar
2) In which of the following did Chomsky add the semantic component to his TG Grammar for the first time
A The Classic Theory B The Standard Theory
C The Extended Standard Theory D The Minimalist Program
3) According to Halliday the three general functions of language are _____
A ideational interpersonal and textual
B ideational informative and textual
C metalinguistic interpersonal and textual
D ideational interpersonal and referential
4) The person who is often described as father of modem linguistics is______
A Firth B Saussure
C Halliday D Chomsky
5) The most important contribution of the Prague School to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of ____
A function B meaning
C signs D system
6) The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is___
A Boas B Sapir
C Bloomfield D Harris
7) The theory of ____ considers that all sentences are generated from a semantic structure
A Case Grarmnar B Stratificational Grammar
C Relational Grammar D Generative Semantics
8) ___ Grammar is the most widespread and the best understood method of discussing IndoEuropean languages
A Traditional B Structural
C Functional D Generative
9) Hjelmslev is a Danish linguist and the central figure of the ___
A Prague School B Copenhagen School
C London School D Generative Semantics
10) In Halliday’s view the _____ function is the function that the child uses to know about his smmundings
A personal B heuristic
C imaginative D informative
11) The theme in the sentence On it stood Jane is ___
A On it B stood
C On it stood D Jane
12) Chomsky follows_______ in philosophy and mentalism in psychology
A empiricism B behaviourism
C rationalism D mentalism
13) TG Gmnanar has seen _______ stages of development
A three B four
C five D six
4 Decide whether the following statements are true[ T] or false[ F]
1) In the Classical theory Chomsky’s aim is to make linguistics a science This theory is characterized by three features (1) emphasis on prescription of language (2) introduction of transormational rules and (3) grammatical description regardless of language formation
2) Generative grammar is a system of rules that in some explicit and welldefined way assigns structural descriptions to sentences
3) Following Saussure’ s distinction between langue and parole Trubetzkoy argued that phonetics belonged to langue whereas phonology belonged to parole
4) The subjectpredicate distinction is the same as the theme and nheme ontrast
5) London Sohool is also known as systemic linguistics and funetional linguistics
6) According to Firth a system is la set of mutually exclusive options that come into play at some point in a linguisfie structure
7) American Structuralism is a branch of diaehronie linguistics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century
8) The Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar
9) American descriptive linguistics is empirieist and focuses on diversities of languages
10) Chomsky’ s concept of linguistic performance is similar to Saussure’ s concept of parole while his use of linguistic eompetenee is somewhat different from Saussure’ s langue
11) If two sentences have exactly the same ideational and interpersonal functions they would be the same in terms of textual coherenee
12) The stmcmmlists follow behaviorism in philosophy and empiricism in psychology
5 Short Answer questions
1) When is the beginning of modem linguistics
2) Why is Saussure thought of as the father of modern linguistics
3) How many stages of development has Americau structuralism undergone
4) What is behaviourism What is the relationship between linguistics and behaviorism according to Bloomfield
5) How many stages of development has Chomsky’ s TG grammar undergone
6) What is transformational grannnar What is generative graminar
7) What is characteristic of TG grammar
8) What is Functional Sentence Perspective
9) Can you make a brief introduction to the Copenhagen School
10) How many stages of development has London School undergone
11) What did Firth inherit from Malinowski’ s and Saussure’ s views
12) Can you state briefly about Halliday’ s seven functions in children’s model of language
13) Can you state briefly about Halliday’ s three metafunctions in adults’ language

Key to Chapter Thirteen
1 Define the following terms
1) structral linguistcs
Stmcturalist linguistics is a principally American phenomenon of the mid20th century typified by the work of Leonard Bloomfield who drew on ideas of the behaviorist school of psychology The structuralists are primarily concerned with phonology morphology and syntax They focus on the physical features of utterances with little regard for meaning or lexicon Stmcturalist linguistics describes linguistic features in terms of structures and systems Dissatisfied with traditional grammar structuraist grammar sets out to describe the current spoken language which people use in communication For the first time structuralist grammar provides description of phonological systems which aids the systematic teaching of pronunciation However like traditional grammar the focus of stmcturalist grammar is still on the grammatical structures of a language
2) ideational function
The ideational function is to convey new information to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer Present in all language uses the ideational function is a potential because whatever specific use one is making of language he has to refer tO ~ategories of his experience of the world The ideational function mainly consists of transitivity and voice The whole of the transitivity system is part of the ideational component this function therefore not only specifies the available options in meaning but’ also determines the nature of their structural realizations
3) the Prague school
The Prague School practices a special style of synchronic linguistics and its most important contribution to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of function and its contribution to phonology and the distinction between phonetics and phonology Three most important points of its ideas are the emphasis on (1) the synchronic study of language (2) the systemic character of language and (3) the function of language
4) the London School
The London School refers to the kind of linguistic scholar ship in England JR Firth turned linguistics proper into a recog nized distinct academic subject in Britain Firth under the influ ence of the anthropologist B Malinowski influenced his student MAK Halliday They all stressed the importance of context of situation and the system aspect of language Thus London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics Halliday s SystemicFunctional Grammar has two inseparable components Systemic Grammar and Functional Grammar There are six major characteristics of Systemic Grammar (1)It attaches great importance ~o the sociological aspects oflanguage (2) It views language as a form of doing rather than aform of knowing It distinguishes linguistic behavior potential from actual linguistic behavior (3) It gives a relatively high priority to description of the characteristics of particular languages and particular varieties of languages (4) It explains a number of aspects of language in terms of clines (5) It seeks verification of its hypotheses by means of observation from texts and of sta tistical techniques (6) It has as its central category the category of the system The Functional Grammar puts forward three metafunctions the ideational interpersonal and textual function
5) American structuralism
The school includes Boas and Sapir’s theory in the beginning and Bloomfield’ s theory latter From the behaviorists’ point of view it holds that children learn language through a chain of stimulusresponse reinforcement and the adult’ s use of language is also a process of stimulusresponse Its famous formula is S﹥ r s﹥R Here S stands for practical stimulus r stands for the substitute reaction of speech s stands for the substitute stimulus and R stands for external practical reaction PostBloomfieldian linguistics focused on direct observation is characterized by a strict empiricism Its goal is to devise explicit discovery procedures to enable the computer to process raw data about any language and form a complete grammar without intervention by the human linguists
6) TransformationaIGenerative (TG) Grammar
The publication of Chomsky’ sSyntacticStructuresin1957 marked the beginning of the TG Grammar Contrary to Bloomfield’ s dataoriented discovery procedure Chomsky insists on the hypothesisdeduction method and his research is called evaluation process TG Grammar has seen five stages of development the classical theory the standard theory the extended standard theory the revised extended standard theory and the minimalist program Generative Grammar means a system of rules that in some explicit and welldefined way assigns structural descriptions to sentences Chomsky believes that very speaker of a language has mastered and internalised a generative grammar that expresses his knowledge of his language TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealingthe human cognitive system and the essentia nature of human beings The Innate Hypothesis states that linguistic ability is innate and that children are born with an innate faculty for language in general LAD Children are born With some basic knowledge on grammar which is general and universal
2 Fill in the blanks with appropriate words
1) synchronic 2) phonetics
3) J R Firth 4) systemic
5) sociologically 6) distribution
7) Bloomfieldian 8) Deseriptivism
9) innateness 10) hypothesismaker
11) competence 12) grammatical
13) behaviorism 14) Vilem Mathesius
15) linguistic competence performance 16) field tenor mode
17) register genre 18) Malinowski Firth Hallidaay
3 Choose the best answer
1) – 5) ABABA 6) – 10) CDABB 11) – 13) DCC
4 Decide whether the following statements are true [ T] or false[ F]
1) – 5) FTFFT 6) – 10) TFFTT 11) – 12) FF
5 Short Answer questions
1) When is the beginning of modem linguistics
We date modem linguistics from the early twentieth century when scholars worked out detailed scientific methods for establishing relationships among languages This is marked by the publication of Ferdinand de Saussure’s book Course in General linguistics (1916)
During the years from 1907 to 1911 Saussure (1857 ~ 1913) lectured on general linguistics in the University of Geneva After he died in 1913 his colleagues and students thought that his ideas concerning linguistic questions were original and insightful and should be preserved
Two of his students C Bally and A Sechehaye collected lecture notes from students and put them together to produce the great work Course in General linguistics in 1916 This book became the most important source of Saussure’ s ideas and of his influence upon succeeding generations of linguists
2 Why is Saussure thought of as the father of modern linguistics
Saussure occupies such an important place in the history of linguistics that he is often described as father of modem linguistics
(1) The book Course in General Linguistics (1916) which is the most important source of Saussure’ s ideas marked the beginning of modem linguistics
(2) Saussure was the first to notice the complexities of language He believed that language is a system of signs called conventions He held that the sign is the union of the signifier and the signified
(3) By providing answers to questions concerning many aspects oflanguage Saussure made clear the object of study for linguistics as a science His ideas on the arbitrary nature of sign on the relational nature of linguistic units on the distinction of langne and parole and of synchronic and diachronic linguistics etc pushed linguistics into a brand new stage
3 How many stages of development has Americau structuralism undergone
The development of American structuralism can be roughly classified into three stages
(1) Boas and Sapir Period (1911 ~ 1932)
(2) Bloomfieldian Period ( 1933 ~ 1950)
(3) PostBloomfleldian Period (1952 1956)
Debates in a true sense started only in the 1950s when structuralism was opposed by Chomsky’ s TransformationalGenerative grammar
4 What is behaviourism What is the relationship between linguistics and behaviorism according to Bloomfield
Behaviourism isa principle of scientific method based on the belief that human beings cannot know anything they have not experienced Behaviourism in linguistics holds that children learn language through a chain of stimulusresponse reinforcement and the adult’ s use of language is also a process of stimulusresponse
For Bloomfield linguistics is a branch of the positivistic brand of psychology known as behaviourism When the behaviourist methodology entered linguistics via Bloomfield’ s writings the popular practice in linguistic studies was to accept what a native speaker says in his language and to disearcl what he says about it This is because of the belief that a linguistic description was reliable when based on observation of unstudied utterances by speakers it was unreliable ff the analyst had resorted to asking speakers questions suchas Can you say in your language
5 How many stages of development has Chomsky’ s TG grammar undergone
From its birth to the present day TG grammar has seen five stages of development
(1)The Classical Theory (1955 ~ 1965 ) It aims to make linguistics a science
(2)The Standard Theory (1965 ~ 1970) It deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistic theory
(3)The Extended Standard Theory (1970 ~ 1980) It focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar
(4) The Revised Extended Standard Theory (1980 ~ 1992) It focuses discussion on government and binding land is also called Government and Binding ( GB) Theory
(5) The M’mimalistProgram (starting from t992) It is a further revision ofthe previous theory
6 What is transformational grannnar What is generafive graminar
Transformational grammar is a theory of language structure initiated by the US linguist Noam Chomsky which proposes that below the actual phrases and sentences of a language (its surface structure) there lies a more basic layer (its deep structure) which is processed by various mmsformational rules when we speak and write
Genemtive grammar is a general term for the system of language analysis originated by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s to bring scientific rigor to the field of linguisties It is a linguistie theory that attempts to describe a native speaker’s tacit grammatical knowledge hya system of roles that in an explicit and welldefined way specify all of the wellformed or grammatical sentences of a language while excluding all ungrammatical or impossible sentences
7 What is characteristic of TG grammar
Chomsky’s TG grammar has the following features First Chomsky defines language as a set of rules or principles Secondly Chomsky believes that the aim of linguistics is to produce a generative grammar which eaptures the tacit knowledge of the native speaker of his language This eoneerns the question of learning theory and the question of linguistie universals Thirdly Chomsky and his followers are interested in any data that can reveal the native speaker’ s taeit knowledge They seldom use what native speakers say they rely on their own intuition Fourthly Chomsky’ s methodology is hypothesisdeduetive which operates at two levels (1) the linguist formulates a hypothesis about language stmemrea general linguistic theory this is tested by grammars for particular languages and (2) each such grammar is a hypothesis on the general linguistic theory Finally Chomsky follows rationalism in philosophy and mentalism inpsyehology
Structural grammar and TG grammar have different views on the nature of language First Bloomfield de~med language as a set of utterances and aset of lexieal and grammatical habits while Chomsky defined language as a set of rules and principles Secondly the two grammars have different aims in linguistics For structural grammar the aim of linguistics is to describe one or a set of languages such a description is often evaluated in terms of the use to which it is going to be put For Chomsky the aim of linguistics is to produce a generative grammar which captures the tacit knowledge of the native speaker of his language This concerns the question of learning theory and the question of linguistic universals Thirdly the two grammars make use of different types of data in their analysis The stmcturalists only make use of naturally occurring utterances observable and observed Chomsky and his followers are interested in any data that can reveal the native speaker’s tacit knowledge Fourthly the two grammars employ different methods The stmctumlists’ methodology is essentially inductive whereas Chomsky’s is hypothesisdeductive Finally the two grammars view language learning differently The stmcmmlists follow empiricism in philosophy and behaviourisrn in psychology Chomsky follows rationalism in philosophy and mentalsm in psychology
8 What is Functional Sentence Perspective
Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain It deals particularly with the effect of the distribution of known (or given) information and new infrmation in discourse The known information refers to information that ~s not new to the reader or hearer and the new information is what to be transmitted to the reader or hearer Besides the subjeetpreclieate distinction is not always the same as the Theme and Rheme contrast For example
(1) Sally stands on the table (2) On the table stands Sally
Subject Predicate Predicate Subject
Theme Rheme Theme Rheme
Sally is the grammatical subject in both sentences but the Theme in (1) and the Rheme in (2)
9 Can you make a brief introduction to the Copenhagen School
The Copenhagen school is a stmeturalist and formalist group of linguists founded by the Danish linguists Louis Hjelmslev (1899 ~ 1966) and Viggo Brondal (1887 1953) Roman Jakobson (1896 ~ 1982) was asseciated with this group from 1939 to 1949 Influenced by Saussure its most distinctive contribution was a concern with gloss ematies
Glossemanties emphasizes the mane and status of linguistic theory and its relation to description It has also developed a distinction between system and process One of the principal features of gloss ematies is the emphasis of the study of relations and not of things
10 How many stages of development has London School undergone
Briefly the London School can be classified into two stages of development
(1) The establishment and development period represented by Malinowski and Firth
(2) The prime period represented by Halliday
11 What did Firth inherit from Malinowski’ s and Saussure’ s views
Influenced by Malinowski Firth regarded language as a social process as a means of social life rather than simply as a set of agreedupon semiotics and signals He held that in order to live human beings have to learn and learning language is a means of participation in social activities Language is a means of doing things and of making others do things It is a means of acting and living
Following Saussure Firth held that language consists of two elementssystem and structure While structure is the syntagmatic ordering of elements system is a set of paradigmatic units each of which can be substituted by others in certain places Thus structure is horizontal and system is longitudinal
However Firth did not fuly gree with Saussure on the disinction of langue and parole nor did Firth agree to the statement that the object of linguistic study is langue Besides Firth did not see language as something wholly inborn or totally acquired He seemed to adopt a ridingonthe –wall attitude seeing language assomething both inborn and acquired
12 Can you state briefly about Halliday’ s seven functions in children’s model of language
Halliday views language development in children as the mastery of linguistic functions and learning a language is learning how to mean So he proposes seven functions in children’ s model of language
(1) The instmmental function the function that the child uses to meet his material needs getting goods and services For example I want it
(2) The regulatory tunction the function that the child uses to control others’ behavior For example Give me some milk
(3) The interaotional funcion the function that the child uses to communicate with other people For example How do you do
(4) The personal function the function that the child uses to express his own feelings interests interests likes and dishkes etc For example I don’t like it
(5) The coon the function that the child uses to know about his surroundings and the world For example What’s this
(6) The imagingative function the function that the child uses to create his own surroundings For example Is he going to leave mealone
(7) The informative lunction the function that the child over eighteen months old uses to provide information to others For example Mama is out
13 Can you state briefly about Halliday’ s three metafunctions in adults’ language
Since the adult’s language is more complex and has to serve many functions the original functional range of the child＇s language is gradually reduced to a set of highly ceded and abstract functions which are metafimctions that is the ideational the interpersonal and the textual functions
(1) The ideational function is to convey new information to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer
(2) The interpersonal function embodies all uses of language to express social and personal relations
(3) The textual function refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and tmifiedtext and make a hiviggmessage different bom a random list of sentences

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